Photovoltaic Technology

Overview
• Solar constant
• Introduction to Photovoltaics
• How PV panels work?
• Different PV technologies
• Basics of p-n junctions
• Single crystal Si solar cells
• Cells > module > array
• Electrical characteristics
• PV in buildings
• Stand alone PV design
 Solar Constant

Solar radiation level outside the earth’s atmosphere

Measured at 1.36kW/m2
Reduced significantly at earth’s surface
Varies with geographical location, time of day,
season and weather.
 Photovoltaics (“PV”)

• Photovoltaic  “phos” + “volt”

• The conversion of light into electricity
• Silent, no maintenance, no fuel, no emissions
• The lowest cost option for remote applications
• Recognized as part of the solution to the global need for
electricity and clean energy
• Option for all of us
 PV Production in Megawatts
Representing a global market of $15b

Rest of World 2171

2500 Europe
1664
Japan
2000
United States 1155
1500
MW

Total
750
520
1000 201 288 390
34 40 47 55 58 60 69 78 89 126155
500
0
88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02

04

06
19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20
40% growth – 2001 to 2006
60% growth in 2007 (3800MW) Source: www.earth-policy.org
 What is Photovoltaic (PV) systems?

A PV system consist of:

• Photovoltaic cells connected into modules
and encapsulated
• Modules grouped into panels
• Panels groups into arrays
• A power conditioning unit
• batteries
 Solar output
hc
Solar energy > Photon energy = h 

 = frequency
 = wavelength
c = speed of light
h = Plank’s constant =
6.6x10-34Js
Photoelectric effect:

Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some
materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to
absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured,
an electric current results that can be used as electricity.

For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer (such as silicon) is specially treated to form
an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy
strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor
material. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides,
forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric
current -- that is, electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load.
Solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a frame is
called a photovoltaic module which are designed to supply electricity at a
certain voltage. The current produced is directly dependent on amount of
light strikes the module.
Today's most common PV devices use a single junction, or interface, to
create an electric field within a semiconductor such as a PV cell. In a
single-junction PV cell, only photons whose energy is equal to or greater
than the band gap of the cell material can free an electron for an electric
circuit. In other words, the photovoltaic response of single-junction cells is
limited to the portion of the sun's spectrum whose energy is above the band
gap of the absorbing material, and lower-energy photons are not used.

One way to get around this limitation is to use two (or more) different cells,
with more than one band gap and more than one junction, to generate a
voltage. These are referred to as "multijunction" cells (also called "cascade"
or "tandem" cells). Multijunction devices can achieve a higher total
conversion efficiency because they can convert more of the energy
spectrum of light to electricity.
 As shown in figure, a multijunction
device is a stack of individual single-
junction cells in descending order of band
gap (Eg). The top cell captures the high-
energy photons and passes the rest of the
photons on to be absorbed by lower-
band-gap cells.

Much of today's research in multijunction cells focuses on gallium arsenide as one

(or all) of the component cells. Such cells have reached efficiencies of around 35%
under concentrated sunlight. Other materials studied for multijunction devices have
been amorphous silicon and copper indium diselenide.
As an example, the multijunction device below uses a top cell of gallium indium
phosphide, "a tunnel junction," to aid the flow of electrons between the cells, and a
bottom cell of gallium arsenide.
 The basic components of a typical
crystalline silicon PV cell
The basic components of a typical crystalline
silicon PV cell. Several PV cells are wired
together and encapsulated to form PV modules.
 Light Band Gap  Electricity
• Each element has a band gap:
– The difference in energy between the valence band (electron bound to an atom) and the
conduction band (electron free to move between atoms).
• Measured in electron volts, eV
• Metals have a low band gap,
– electrons flow easy
• Each wavelength of light has an associated energy
– Silicon band gap is 1.1 eV which peaks in the infrared region (980 nm )

• Different elements and materials provide a spectrum of

options to absorb the sun’s energy.
 How panels work
• Silicon is doped with different chemicals
– Providing the desired properties of the resulting
compounds
• Based on valence electrons
– One compound or side, is made to be electro-
negative (N-type)
– The other side, being electro-positive (P-type)

N-type

P-type
 Semiconductor Bandgap
Ec Conduction band

(Eg) Band gap

Ev
-
Valence band
Photon (h)

hc
Bandgap  E g  hc 
c
c = cut off frequency
c = cut off wavelength
Diode: The simplest nonlinear electronic device which is a composed of two different
materials placed together so that charge flows easily in one direction but is impeded in the
other direction. The diode’s nonlinear characteristic is the reason it finds so many
applications in electronics.

Theory of Semiconductors:
An atom consists of a nucleus, which has a positive charge. Electrons, with negative
charges, Move around the nucleus in elliptic paths. These electrons distribute themselves
in shells. Electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons.
When extremely pure elements, such as silicon and germanium are cooled from liquid
state, their atoms arrange themselves in orderly patterns called crystals, as illustrated in
figure. The valance electrons determine the exact shape or lattice structure of the resulting
crystal.
Silicon and Germanium atoms each have four valence electrons. Hence, the atoms are
bound in a lattice structure such that each atom shares its four valence electrons with
neighbouring atoms in the form of ‘Covalent bounds’. The covalent bonds hold the lattice
together.
Although the valence electrons are bound tightly in the crystalline structure, it is possible
for these electrons to break their bonds and thus be capable of moving about in a
conduction mode. This happens if sufficient external energy is supplied (i.e. light or heat).
 Figure: Atomic structure of Silicon and Germanium

Figure: Si in covalent bond Figure: Crystal structure

Conduction in Materials:
Figure presents three energy level diagrams. In figure (a) the energy bands
are widely separated. The unshaded region represents a forbidden band
of energy levels in which no electrons are found. When this band is
relatively large, the result is an insulator. If the band is relatively small,
the result is a semiconductor as shown in figure (b).
The Conductor or Metal, results when the bands overlap, as shown in
figure (c). The conductor permits electric charges to move when a
potential difference exists across the material.
Conduction in Semiconductor Materials:
Heat and other sources of energy cause valence band electrons to break
their covalent bonds and become free electrons in the conduction band. As
an electron leaves the valence band, it leaves a ‘hole’. A nearby valence
band electron can move in and fill the hole, thus creating another hole with
practically no exchange of energy.
The two methods by which holes and electrons move through a silicon
crystal are diffusion and drift. Thermal agitation causes random electron
movement in a semiconductor. Although this phenomenon can be related to
diffusion, it does not result in any net flow of charge.
 Energy Increase Conduction band

Forbidden band Over lap

Valance band
a) Insulator b) Semiconductor c) Conductor

However, if some other mechanism causes a concentration at one end of the

semiconductor, the electrons will diffuse to the other end. This gives rise to a net
charge flow, known as diffusion current. The other method of movement, drift,
results when an electric field is applied to the semiconductor and the free holes and
electrons are accelerated in the electric field. The velocity of this movement is
called drift velocity and the movement results in drift currents.
Doped Semiconductors:
The conductivity of a semiconductor can be greatly increased when small amounts
of specific impurities are introduced into the crystal. This procedure is called
doping. If the doping substance has extra free electrons, it is known as a donor and
the doped semiconductor is n-type. The majority carriers are electrons and the
minority carriers are holes, science there are more electrons than holes.
If the doping substance has extra holes, it is known as an acceptor and the doped
semiconductor is p-type. The majority carriers are holes and the minority carriers
are electrons.
The doped materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors, whereas the pure
substance are intrinsic semiconductors. The intrinsic semiconductor crystal has
equal concentrations of free electrons and holes generated by thermal ionization.
The density of electrons is denoted by n, and the density of holes is p. It can be
shown that the product, np, is constant for a given material at a given temperature.
The intrinsic carrier density denoted by ni, is given by the square root of this
product. Thus, ni2 = np.
+ -

p n

Figure: Simplified diode model

Diode Construction:
Figure shows a p-type material and an n-type material placed together to form a junction.
This represents a simplified model of diode construction. Practical diodes are constructed
as a single piece of semiconductor material, where one side is doped with p-type
material and the other side with n-type material. Figure shows the schematic symbol of
the diode. The “arrow” in this symbol points from the p- to the n-type material.
A Depletion region will exist in the vicinity of the junction as shown in figure. This
phenomenon is due to a combination of electrons and holes where the materials join.
This Depletion region will have few carriers. The minority carriers on each side of the
depletion region (electrons in the p-region and holes in the n-region) will migrate to the
other side and combine with ions in that material. Likewise, the majority carriers
(electrons in the n-region and holes in the p-region) will migrate across the junction.
Components of Current:
The two components of the current formed by the hole and electron movements across
the junction add together to form the diffusion current, ID. The direction of this current is
from the p-side to the n-side. In addition to the diffusion current, a current exists due to
the minority carrier drift across the junction and this is referred to as Is. Some of the
thermally generated holes in the n-type material diffuse through the n-type material to
the edge of the depletion region. There they experience the electric field and are swept
across the depletion region into the p-type side. The electrons react in the same manner.
The components of these actions combine to form the drift current, Is.
 During open-circuit conditions, the diffusion current is equal to the drift
current (at equilibrium).

Figure: Forward bias conf. Figure: Reverse biasing conf.

If you now apply a positive potential to the p-material relative to the n-material, as
shown in the figure, the diode is said to be forward biased. The depletion region
shrinks in size due to the attraction of majority carriers to the opposite side. That is,
the negative potential at the right attracts holes in the p-region and vice versa. With a
smaller depletion region, current can flow more readily. When forward biased, after
equilibrium is achieved: ID-Is=I, where I is the current through the junction.
Alternatively, if the positive voltage is applied to the n-material relative to the p-
material as shown in figure, the diode is said to be reverse biased. Free electrons
are drawn toward n-material and holes are drawn to toward p-type material. The
depletion region gets wider and the diode acts as an insulator. When reverse
biased, Is - ID=I after equilibrium is achieved, where I is the current through the
junction.
 p-n Junction Circuit Characteristics

Illumination

p n
LD

+ -

IL
 Photovoltaic Circuit
Rs
-

-
Vb
IL ID Rsh
Cell output V

+
+

The current becomes:

I  IL  ID 
V  IRs 
Rsh
 Simple equivalent circuit

-
V
IL Io RL

+
kT
Vth  is the thermal voltage
  qV   q
I  I L  I o  exp    1 Boltzman constant =
  kT   1.38 x 10-23 J/K
 I - V characteristics

Isc

Pmax
Current

Voc

Voltage
 Electrical characteristics
• I - V curve describes electrical characteristics
of the PV cell
• 3 significant points
– Isc
– Voc
– maximum power point
 Short circuit current

• At normal levels of irradiance, Isc can be

considered to equal the photocurrent, Iph (i.e.
series resistance is negligible)
• Isc increases linearly with increasing irradiance
 Open circuit voltage
• Corresponds to voltage drop across p-n
junction when traversed by Iph
• Voc increases logarithmically with increasing
irradiance
• Voc decreases linearly with increasing junction
temperature
 Maximum power point

• Point at which area under curve is maximised

• Power delivered to load depends on value of
R only

Fill Factor

Efficiency
Effect of irradiance
 Effect of temperature

Current, I
 PV Technologies

• Crystalline Silicon on Glass

– 1st generation (developed in the 70s) semiconductor
wafer in glass, complex manufacturing process

• Thin Film (majority on glass)

– 2nd generation (developed in the 80s)
requires low-pressure, high-temperature film deposition,
expensive packaging, complex manufacturing process

• Polymers; Nanomaterials & Organic

– 3rd generation (developed in the 90s)
uses photoactive dyes, conducting polymers, high-speed
manufacturing process at low temperature, low cost
materials, scaleable
SINGLE CRYSTAL SILICON PV CELLS
 SILICON
• Silicon is the most popular PV material
• Most cells are made from left over computer chip
manufacturing
• Silicon must be refined to almost 100% purity
• The uniform molecular structure of silicon makes it
efficient for electron transport
• Silicon wafers are cut from ingots
Fabrication of a Si PV
Module
 PARTS OF A SOLAR CELL
• Electrically conductive grid on top surface to carry electrons
• 1-2 layers of anti-reflective coating to increase absorption
• The collector: a thin layer of silicon
• An electrode in contact with base layer to complete the circuit.
 CELLS -> MODULES -> ARRAY

• Wafers 5 inches square and .012 inches thick are sliced from the ingot.
• They are then processed into cells and soldered together to achieve
the desired voltage.
• Cells arrayed in series are called modules.
 PV generators

• Stand-alone systems
– DC loads, battery storage system
• Grid independent
– AC loads (also DC), battery & inverter
• Grid connected systems
– AC loads, uses grid as storage
 Stand-alone PV generators

• Remote industrial applications

• telecommunications
• navigation aids
• cathodic protection
• Rural applications
• rural lighting (community/village systems)
• water pumping
• health care (vaccine refrigeration, health centres)
• Consumer products
 Grid independent PV generators

• Rural applications which require AC power

– some telecommunications
– rural residences (remote lodges, islands, etc.)
System components
 PV in Buildings

 Why PV in Buildings?

Technology and Architecture

 Methods of Integration
 Why PV in Buildings?

 Buildings account for around 35% of total

primary energy requirements
 Need for energy conscious building
design incorporating both energy
efficiency and generation
 Only renewable energy that can easily
used in the urban environment
 Schematic of BIPV system

Building Load

kWh

UTILITY GRID
Inverter kWh
PV Generator
 Methods of Integration

Façade integration: vertical, sloping ,

saw-tooth, structural glazing
Roof integration: structural, atrium,
skylight, independently mounted,
saw-tooth
Hybrid
 PV Design
• Grid connected
• Stand alone
• DC grid connected
 Stand alone PV Design
• Project/Variant
– Location (longitude, latitude)
– Albedo values
• Orientation
– Fixed tilted plane
– Seasonal tilt adjustment
– Tilt axes tracking
– Horizontal axes tracking
– Two axes tracking
• Horizon (i.e. sunrise-sunset hours)
• Near shading
• User needs
– Daily consumptions e.g. appliances
• Regulator
• No of PV Panel and their configurations
Stand alone PV Design
 Concentrating Photovoltaics
• Concentration ratio: aperture area / absorber
area
• Basic design
– Refractive
– Reflective
– Total internal reflection
• Efficiency improvement
• Cost reduction
• One/two axis tracking system
Solar Cars and Boats