Quality Control

Learning Objectives
 List and briefly explain the elements of the
control process.
 Explain how control charts are used to
monitor a process, and the concepts that
underlie their use.
 Use and interpret control charts.
 Use run tests to check for non randomness in
process output.

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 Quality Control
 Is a process that measures the output relative
to a standard and takes corrective action
when output does not meet standard

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 Phases of Quality Assurance
Inspection and
Inspection of lots corrective Quality built
before/after action during into the
production production process

Acceptance Process Continuous

sampling control improvement

The least The most

progressive progressive

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 Inspection
 How Much/How Often
 Where/When
 Centralized vs. On-site

Inputs Transformation Outputs

Acceptance Process Acceptance

sampling control sampling

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Cost
Inspection Costs

Total Cost
Cost of
inspection

Cost of
passing
defectives
Optimal
Amount of Inspection

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 Where to Inspect in the Process
 Raw materials and purchased parts
 Finished products
 Before a costly operation
 Before an irreversible process
 Before a covering process

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 Statistical Control
 Statistical Process Control: Statistical
evaluation of the output of a process during
production
– Quality control effort that occur during production
 Quality of Conformance: A product or service
conforms to specifications

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 Statistical Process Control

 Statistical Process Control

(SPC)
– monitoring production process
to detect and prevent poor UCL
quality
 Sample
– subset of items produced to use
for inspection LCL
 Control Charts
– process is within statistical
control limits

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 Control Chart
 Control Chart
– Purpose: to monitor process output to see if it is
random
– A time ordered plot representative sample
statistics obtained from an on going process (e.g.
sample means)
– Upper and lower control limits define the range of
acceptable variation

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 Control Chart
Abnormal variation Out of
due to assignable sources control
UCL

Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number

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 Variations and Control
 Random variation: Natural variations in the
output of a process, created by countless
minor factors
 Assignable variation: A variation whose source
can be identified
– Tool wear, defective material, human factors
(carelessness, fatigue), equipment that needs
adjustment

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 Variability

 Random  Non-Random
– common causes – special causes
– inherent in a – due to identifiable
process factors
– can be eliminated – can be modified
only through through operator or
improvements in management action
the system
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 Sampling Distribution

Sampling
distribution

Process
distribution

Mean

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 Normal Distribution

Standard deviation

   

Mean
95.44%

99.74%

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 Control Limits
Sampling
distribution

Process
distribution

Mean

Lower Upper
control control
limit limit

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 SPC Errors
 Type I error
– Concluding a process is not in control when it
actually is.
 Type II error
– Concluding a process is in control when it is not.

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 Type I and Type II Error

In control Out of control

In control No Error Type I error

(producers risk)
Out of Type II Error No error
control (consumers risk)

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 Type I Error

/2 /2

Mean

Probability LCL UCL

of Type I error

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Observations from Sample Distribution

UCL

LCL

1 2 3 4
Sample number

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 Control Charts
 Control Charts for Variables
– Variables generate data that are measured
 Control Charts for Attributes
– Attributes generate data that are counted

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 Quality Measures
 Attribute
– a product characteristic that can be evaluated
with a discrete response
– good – bad; yes - no
 Variable
– a product characteristic that is continuous and
can be measured
– weight - length

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 Control Charts for Variables
 Mean control charts
– Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process.
– X bar charts

 Range control charts

– Used to monitor the process dispersion
– R charts

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 Mean and Range Charts
(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution

UCL

x-Chart Detects shift

LCL

UCL

Does not
R-chart
detect shift
LCL

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 Mean and Range Chart

Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasing)

UCL

x-Chart Does not

LCL
reveal increase

UCL

R-chart Reveals increase

LCL

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 Mean chart

x1 + x2 + ... xk
=
x= k

= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where

x = average of sample means

=

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 Mean chart
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP- RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

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 5.10 –

5.08 –
UCL = 5.08
5.06 –

5.04 –

5.02 –
x= = 5.01
Mean

5.00 –

4.98 –

4.96 –

4.94 – LCL = 4.94

4.92 –
| | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number

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 R-chart

UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

R
R= k

where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples

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 R-chart
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

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 R-chart

R 1.15 UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243

R= = = 0.115
k 10 LCL = D3R = 0(0.115) = 0

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 R-chart
0.28 –
0.24 –
UCL = 0.243
0.20 –
0.16 –
Range

R = 0.115
0.12 –
0.08 –
0.04 – LCL = 0
0– | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number

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 Control Chart for Attributes
 p-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the
proportion of defectives in a process
 c-Chart - Control chart used to monitor the
number of defects per unit

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 p-Chart

UCL = p + zp
LCL = p - zp
z = number of standard deviations from
process average
p = sample proportion defective; an estimate
of process average
p = standard deviation of sample proportion

p(1 - p)
p = n
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 p-Chart

NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200

20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans

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 p-Chart

total defectives
p= = 200 / 20(100) = 0.10
total sample observations

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
n 100
UCL = 0.190

p(1 - p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)

LCL = p - z = 0.10 - 3
n 100
LCL = 0.010

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 0.20
0.18 UCL = 0.190

Proportion defective
0.16
0.14
0.12
p = 0.10
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number

P-chart

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 Use of p-Charts
 When observations can be placed into two
categories.
– Good or bad
– Pass or fail
– Operate or don’t operate
 When the data consists of multiple samples of
several observations each

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 c-chart

UCL = c + zc
c = c
LCL = c - zc

where
c = number of defects per sample

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 24
UCL = 23.35
21

18
Number of defects
c = 12.67

15

12

3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number

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 Use of c-Charts
 Use only when the number of occurrences per
unit of measure can be counted; non-
occurrences cannot be counted.
– Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
– Cracks or faults per unit of distance
– Breaks or Tears per unit of area
– Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
– Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

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 Control Chart Patterns
UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently below the LCL
center line
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line
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 Control Chart Patterns (cont.)
UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently increasing LCL

Sample observations
consistently decreasing

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 Zones for Pattern Tests
UCL =
3 sigma = x + A2R
Zone A
= 2
2 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)

Zone B
= 1
1 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)
Zone C
Process =
x
average
Zone C
=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3
Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3
Zone A
=
LCL 3 sigma = x - A2R
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
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 Performing a Pattern Test
SAMPLE x ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN ZONE

1 4.98 B — B
2 5.00 B U C
3 4.95 B D A
4 4.96 B D A
5 4.99 B U C
6 5.01 — U C
7 5.02 A U C
8 5.05 A U B
9 5.08 A U A
10 5.03 A D B

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 Process Capability
 Tolerances
– design specifications reflecting product requirements
– pro
 Process variability
– Natural variability in a process
– It is measured in terms of the process standard
deviation
 Process capability
– Inherent variability of process output relative to the
variation allowed by design specification

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 Process Capability
Design
Specifications

(a) Natural variation

exceeds design
specifications; process
is not capable of
meeting specifications
all the time.
Process
Design
Specifications

(b) Design specifications

and natural variation the
same; process is capable
of meeting specifications
most of the time.

Process
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 Process Capability (cont.)
Design
Specifications

(c) Design specifications

greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications

(d) Specifications greater

than natural variation,
but process off center;
capable but some output
will not meet upper
specification.
Process
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 Process Capability Measures

Process Capability Ratio

tolerance range
Cp = process range

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
=
6

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 Computing Cp

Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz

Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
Cp = 6

9.5 - 8.5
= = 1.39
6(0.12)

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 Process Capability Measures

Process Capability Index

x= - lower specification limit

3 ,
Cpk = minimum
upper specification limit - =x
3

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 Computing Cpk

Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz

Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

=
x - lower specification limit
,
Cpk = minimum 3
=
upper specification limit - x
3

8.80 - 8.50 9.50 - 8.80

= minimum , = 0.83
3(0.12) 3(0.12)

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 Run Tests
 Run test – a test for randomness
 Any sort of pattern in the data would suggest
a non-random process
 All points are within the control limits - the
process may not be random

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 Nonrandom Patterns in Control charts
 Trend
 Cycles
 Bias
 Mean shift
 Too much dispersion

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