Objectives

• Overview of respiratory system

• Mechanics of respiration
• Blood gas exchange, transport of
CO2 and O2
• Diffusion and perfusion
• Limitation of diffusion and perfusion
• Control of respiration
Pulmonary ventilation
 Air moves in and out of lungs
 Continuous replacement of gases in alveoli (air sacs)

External respiration
 Gas exchange between blood and air at alveoli
 O2 (oxygen) in air diffuses into blood
 CO2 (carbon dioxide) in blood diffuses into air

Internal respiration
 Gas exchange in capillaries between blood and tissue cells
 O2 in blood diffuses into tissues
 CO2 waste in tissues diffuses into blood

Cellular respiration
 Oxygen (O2) is used by the cells
 O2 needed in conversion of glucose to cellular energy (ATP)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced as a waste product
 The body’s cells die if either the respiratory or cardiovascular system fails
 Alveoli surrounded by fine elastic
fibers
 Alveoli interconnect via alveolar pores
 Alveolar macrophages – free floating
“dust cells”
 Note type I and type II cells and joint
membrane

air-blood barrier (the respiratory

membrane)
is where gas exchange occurs
Oxygen diffuses from air in alveolus
(singular of alveoli) to blood in
capillary.Carbon dioxide diffuses from
the blood in the capillary into the air
in the alveolus
 Nose
Epiglottis
Elastic cartilage covered by mucosa Provides airway
On a stalk attached to thyroid cartilage Moistens and warms air
Attaches to back of tongue Filters air
During swallowing, larynx is pulled superiorly Resonating chamber for speech
Epiglottis tips inferiorly to cover and seal laryngeal inlet Olfactory receptors
Keeps food out of lower respiratory tract

The Larynx (voicebox)

The Pharynx (throat)
Extends from the level of the 4th to the 6th cervical vertebrae  3 parts: naso-, oro- and
Attaches to hyoid bone superiorly laryngopharynx
Inferiorly is continuous with trachea (windpipe)  Houses tonsils
Three functions: (they respond to inhaled antigens)
1. Produces vocalizations (speech)  Uvula closes off nasopharynx
2. Provides an open airway (breathing) during swallowing so food
3. Switching mechanism to route air and food into proper doesn’t go into nose
channels
• Closed during swallowing
• Open during breathing

Trachea (the windpipe)

Descends: larynx through neck into mediastinum
Divides in thorax into two main (primary) bronchi,16-20 C-shaped
rings of hyaline cartilage joined by fibroelastic connective tissue
Flexible for bending but stays open despite pressure changes during
breathing
Conducting zone
Respiratory passages that carry air to the
site of gas exchange
Filters, humidifies and warms air

Respiratory zone
Site of gas exchange
Composed of
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Surfactant

• Type II cuboidal epithelial

cells are scattered in alveolar
walls
• Surfactant is a detergent-like
substance which is secreted
in fluid coating alveolar
surfaces – it decreases
tension
• Without it the walls would
stick together during
exhalation
• Premature babies – problem
breathing is largely because
lack surfactant
Plain water Surface Water & surfactant
tension

add surfactant
 Mechanics of respiration
 Breathing = “pulmonary
ventilation”
 Pulmonary means related to the
lungs
 Two phases
 Inspiration (inhalation) – air in
 Expiration (exhalation) – air out
 Mechanical forces cause the
movement of air
 Gases always flow from higher the ribs during expiration are angled downward, and
pressure to lower the external intercostals are elongated forward and
 For air to enter the thorax, the downward.
pressure of the air in it has to be
lower than atmospheric pressure
 Making the volume of the As external intercostal, sternocleidomastoid , and
thorax larger means the air scaleni, they pull the upper ribs forward in relation to
inside it is under less the lower ribs, and this causes leverage on the ribs to
pressure
raise them upward, thereby causing inspiration.
(the air has more space for as
many gas particles, therefore
it is under less pressure)
 The diaphragm and The internal intercostals and abdominal recti function
intercostal muscles exactly in the opposite manner, functioning as
accomplish this
expiratory muscles because they angle between the
ribs in the opposite direction and cause opposite
leverage.
 Pulmonary Circulation.
 Arises from Right Ventricle.
 Receives 100% of blood flow.

 Bronchial Circulation.
 Arises from the aorta.
 Part of systemic circulation.
 Receives about 2% of left ventricular output.
 Pulmonary arteries bring oxygen-poor blood to the lungs for oxygenation
 They branch along with the bronchial tree
 The smallest feed into the pulmonary capillary network around the alveoli
 Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the alveoli of the lungs to the heart
Blood gas exchange, transport of CO2 and O2
 Transport of O2 in solution during
O2 in physical solution exercise
7%

70%

23%
 Gas composition in the normal alveolar space
In the alveolar space, oxygen diffuses into the
Alveolar Gas Equation blood and CO2 diffuses into the alveolus from the
blood
PAO2 = (PiO2) – (PaCO2/R).

PaCO2 approximates PACO2 due to the rapid diffusion

of CO2
R = Respiratory Quotient (VCO2/V02) = 0.8

In a normal individual breathing room air:

PAO2 = 150 – 40/0.8 = 100 mmHg

Suppose a patient hypoventilates, so that

the PCO2 rises to 80 mmHg?

PAO2 = 150 – 80/0.8 = 50 mmHg

Thus even with perfectly efficient lungs,

the PAO2 would be 50, and the patient
would be severely hypoxemic. Therefore,
hypoventilation results in hypoxemia.
Diffusion and perfusion limitation
Control of breathing