PIPE SIZING

Pipe sizing

Inputs :- Flow, Temperature & Pressure

STEP 1
Calculate the internal diameter (d) of pipe using Continuity Equation

Q=AxV
where,
Q = Volumetric flow through pipe (obtained from input data)
A = Area = (π/4)X id2
id = Internal diameter of pipe
V = Velocity of fluid flowing through pipe
(obtained from recommended velocity range
Table C3.6 of Piping handbook of crocker & King)

STEP 2

Using temperature & properties of fluid, select the appropriate piping

material.
 Pipe sizing
STEP 3
Calculate the thickness (t) of pipe, using the formula

O.D. Based Formula :-

tm = PDo/2(SE + Py)+ A Eqn. no. (3)' from ANSI B31.1

I.D. Based Formula :-

tm = (Pd + 2SEA + 2yPA)/2(SE + Py – P) --Eqn. no. (3A)' of ANSI B31.1

where,
tm= Minimum thickness
P = Internal Design Pressure (Obtained from input data)
d = Internal diameter of pipe
Do = Outer diameter of pipe
(select pipe NB and OD, based on ID calculated in STEP 1)
S = Maximum Allowable Stress of material (Appendix-A of ASME B31.1)
(for different temperature values)
E = Weld Joint efficiency factor (Ref. table 102.4.3 of ASME B31.1)
 Pipe sizing
y = Coefficient, based on material (Ref. Table 104.1.2
(A) of ANSI B31.1)
A = additional thickness (from ASME B31.1) for the
followings:
•To compensate the material removed in threading,
grooving etc.
•To provide for mechanical strength of pipe
• To provide corrosion and/or erosion

Above calculated thickness shall be increased by

dividing with -ve manufacturing tolerance (12.5%) to
arrive at required thickness.

In case of bend, ‘thinning allowance’ is to be added

over the above ‘required thickness’ to arrive at required
thickness for the bend. The value is generally 10 to
15%, which depends on manufacturers’ capability

Select appropriate thickness from ASME B 36.10 or

B36.19
 Pipe sizing
STEP 4

Based on calculated thickness as above

1. Check the pipe ID, if the thickness is calculated based on OD.

2. Check the velocity based on above pipe ID

3. If the checked ID & Velocity comes out lesser or higher than the
calculation under Step 1, then repeat the steps 1 to 4, so that
velocity should fall within recommended range.
 Pipe sizing

STEP 5

Pressure drop calculations has following steps : -

1. Frictional drop
2. Static elevation difference
3. Loss across equipment

Frictional Pressure drop calculation shall be done by the following

equations :-
Darcy-Weisbach Equation (used for all types of fluids)
Δp = f(l / d) (ρv2 / 2g)
where,
Δp = pressure loss (Psf or Pa)
f = Moody friction factor (Dimensionless)

l = Length of duct or pipe, Ft or m

d= Inside diameter of pipe, ft or m

 Pipe sizing
ρ = density, lb/ft3 or kg/m3

Hazen Williams Equation

Pd = 4.52 q1.85 / (c1.85 d4.8655)

where,
Pd = pressure drop (psi/ft pipe)

c = Hazen williams pipe co-efficient determined for the

type of pipe or tube - the higher the factor, the
smoother the pipe or tube
q = flow rate (gpm)

d= inside pipe diameter (inch)

Note: For moderate and high pr. Water mist system for pr. Above 175
psi (1.2 MPa), Hazen-Williams eqn. is not considered sufficient. In such
case, Darcy-weisbach eqn. is followed. In fact, this eqn. can be used for
all fluids (water, steam, gas etc.) as this method can accommodate fluid
viscosities and densities of all types of fluids.
 Pipe sizing
Frictional pr. drop in straight pipe calculated by above formula
shall be added with the followings to arrive at the total pressure
drop for the system:
1. Pressure drop in fittings, valves, specialities etc. on the
pipeline.
2. Static elevation difference
3. Drop across the equipment

Above pressure drop shall be added to the user end point

pressure requirement, if any (e,g fire hydrant system) and required
margin to arrive at the pressure required at source.

If the pressure drop is not within acceptable limit, then following

steps may be taken :-
1. Modification in layout

2. Increasing the inlet pressure by selecting higher

pump/compressor discharge pressure.

3. Increasing the pipe diameter, thereby repeating steps 1 to 4

above.
MATERIAL SELECTION
 MATERIAL SELECTION

Material Selection of Pipe depends on following factors:-

1. Temperature

2. Types of Fluid flowing through pipe

3. Strength

4. Cost Economics

Normally MS, CS, GI, AS, SS, CI and Cu-alloy materials are generally used
in power plant application:-

1. MS material is used for ambient temp. utility application

(MS material used for: Service air, Service water, CW etc.)

2. CS materials should not be used beyond 400ºC.

(CS material used for: Steam less than 400°C, Boiler Feed water,
Condensate etc.)
 MATERIAL SELECTION

3. Different grades of AS materials are used according to temperature,

material should not be used beyond 550°C. P91 is a better option in this
temperature range.
(AS material used for : Steam beyond 400 °C)
4. SS material is normally used where corrosive atmosphere prevails.
Internal for CS valve or other CS items may also be SS.
However, SS material is prone to Chloride Corrosion.
(SS material used: DM water, Condensate Polishing, Inst. Air etc.)
5. GI material is used when SS material is costlier option,
yet corrosion prevention is the criteria.
(GI material used for: Drinking water, Instrument air etc.)
CI material shall be used for water application. As this does not get
rusted, this material is used for pipeline where continuous flow
is not there.
6. Cu-alloy materials are sometimes used for ordinary temp. application
• (e,g Fire Protection system valves).
 MATERIAL SELECTION

Some commonly used material grades are as follows:

1. MS: IS1239 Part-I (Heavy), IS3589 Fe330/410, IS2062

2. CS: ASTM A106 Gr.B / Gr.C, ASTM A216 WCB/WCC, A234 WPB

3. SS: ASTM A312 TP304/316/316L/410, ASTM A182 F304/316/316L

ASTM A351 CF8

4. AS: ASTM A335 P11/P12/P22/P91, ASTM A217 WC6/WC9,

A234 WP11/WP22/WP91

5. Cu-Alloy: IS 778

6. CI: ASTM A126

PIPING LAYOUT
&
SUPPORTS
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

Major Points to be considered while preparing Piping Layout :-

1. Availability of equipment layout

2. Shortest Route

3. Flexibility

4. Accessibility of supporting arrangement

5. Accessibility for operation & maintenance of valves or other items on

pipeline

6. Fouling in cold as well as hot condition of pipe

7. Insulation Thickness

8. Provision of drains at lowest point and vents at highest point

 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

9. Proximity of other pipe

10. Additional Space for future, if any

After preliminary layouting we go for finalization of layout

Types of major fittings used while laying pipes :-

1. Tee 8. Threadolets
`
2. Half Coupling 9. Elbow

3. Full Coupling 10. Bends

4. Reducer/Expander 11. Cross

5. Flange

6. Weldolets

7. Sockolets
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

Types of Valves commonly used on piping for system operation :-

1. Gate valve
2. Globe valve
3. Check valve
4. Ball valve
5. Plug valve
6. Butterfly valve
7. Diaphragm valve
8. Safety valve
9. Relief valve

Types of Specialities commonly used on piping for system operation:

1. Strainer/Filter 5. Expansion Joint

2. Steam Trap
3. Restriction Orifice
4. Flow element
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
TYPE OF PIPE JOINTS

Following types of pipe joints are generally used for joining steel
pipe:

1. Butt welded
2. Socket welded
3. Flanged
4. Threaded
5. Bolted
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

PIPE SUPPORT

Pipe supports are required for :-

1. Distribution of loading.

2. To prevent sagging in the pipe.

3. To prevent Vibration.

4. To prevent adverse thrust on piping due to safety valve popping

etc.

5. To allow for proper flexibility in piping while supporting.

 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
PIPE SUPPORT (contd.)

Types of Pipe Supports are :-

1. Restraints

• Anchor
• Stop
• Guide

2. Hangers and Supports

• Rigid Hanger/support
• Flexible Hanger

3. Vibration Absorbers

• Snubber
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

Spacing of Pipe Support :-

Proper spacing of pipe support is very important. ANSI B 31.1 (Table

121.5) gives recommended spacing of support.

The spacing of support for straight pipe should be such that sagging
due to self weight shall be restricted to 2.5mm. For presence of valves
and other items on pipeline, the support spacing shall be even closer.
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

Details of Supports

1. Restraints

• Anchor: Fully fixes the support point, neither translation nor rotation
is permitted.
• Stop: Restricts translational movement.
• Guide: Restricts rotation

2. Hangers and Supports

• Rigid hanger/Supports:

‘Rigid hangers’ are used at locations where no vertical movement of the

piping occurs, but the pipe is to be supported from top. However
small horizontal movement is allowed upto max. 4 deg vertical
inclination of hanger rod.
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

Details of Supports (contd.)

‘Supports’ are used when the pipe is to be supported from bottom. In

such case following phenomena should be guarded against:

a) pipe is subjected to friction against horizontal movement, which has

to be negated by using Roller or half rod or PTFE or Graphite etc.
between the support base plate and structural plate (from which the
pipe is supported).

b) Also, lifting of pipe from support due to thermal expansion which

nullifies the supporting function shall be suitably prevented.

Function of Rigid Hanger and Supports are basically same, i,e to restrict
the vertical movement of pipe.
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

• Flexible Hanger:

This type of support is mostly used in high temperature

application, which sustains the vertical primary load of pipe while
allowing for free thermal expansion

Classification of Flexible Hangers:-

1. Variable load Spring hangers:

Its supporting force varies with the spring deflection.

2. Constant load spring hangers:

It provides constant supporting force in both cold and operating
conditions and no pipe weight reactions are imposed at
equipment connections and anchors.
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

Selection of Type of Spring Hangers is as follows :-

Spring Stiffness, K = Load/Movement = P/ 

where,
P = Pipe load
 = Pipe movement

Variability factor = (Hot Load - Cold Load)/ Hot load X100

= K x  /Hot load

Variable hanger is selected in the following cases:

a) Above % should not exceed 25%,
b) Transfer of load to adjacent hangers or equipment is not critical
c) Vertical movement of the piping is less than ¾ inch.

Otherwise, constant load hanger should be selected, the variability factor

for which is as follows:
(Max. load moving down – Minm. Load moving up)x100/
(Max. load moving down + Minm. Load moving up)
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS

PIPE SUPPORT (Contd.)

variability of const. load hanger as calculated above should not exceed

6% (max.) for critical pipe.

Cold Preset Load:

The spring hanger is set at a load in cold condition, so that it takes

the load from pipe in operating condition after movement.

The load is calculated as follows:

Cold Preset Load= Hot operating load + Spring const. x movement
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
Thermal Insulation

The purpose of providing hot insulation is:

- Heat generated inside pipe should not escape out

- Personnel protection

Suitable material is selected for insulation purpose depending on

the working temperature, as follows:

• For temperature around upto 600 ºC Calcium Silicate is preferred

• For temperature around 250 ºC – 300 ºC Mineral Wool is preferred
• For temperature beyond 600 ºC refractory is used

Insulation thickness is calculated by following equation:

Conductive Heat Loss = Convective Heat Loss + Radiative Heat Loss.
 PIPING LAYOUT & SUPPORTS
Thermal Insulation

Insulation thickness for ‘hot insulation’ shall be such that max. surface
temp. should not exceed 60 deg C.

Insulation outside diameter of insulated pipe should be considered while

laying two pipes side by side, to avoid fouling. Insulation wt. shall be
considered in addition to wt. of pipe and other items on pipe, for design
of pipe support.
STRESS ANALYSIS
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Why Stress analysis is required?

1. To know Forces, Moments at equipment nozzles and check
against allowable values.
2. To check stresses in different conditions
3. To get deflection values and checking against limiting
values
4. To get Forces, Moments at different support points
5. To design pipe against occasional loading
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Major Stress occurring in a pipe are due to :-

A) Sustained Loading conditions

 Internal Pressure/ External Pressure, Self Weight, Insulation Weight,
Weight of other items on pipeline etc.
The stress generated due to such loading is ‘Primary stress’.

B) Occasional Loading condition

 Wind, Hydro, Earthquake, safety valve discharge etc.

C) Thermal Loading condition

The stress generated due to such loading is ‘Secondary stress’.
The above stresses may be because of resultant effect of Bending,
Torsion, Axial, Radial, Circumferential loadings etc.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Preliminary Check, whether Pipe Analysis is required or not can be carried

over by following formula:-
DY/ (L – U)2 < = 0.03
where,
D = Nominal pipe diameter,
Inches
Y = Thermal Expansion, inches
L = Developed Length, ft.
U = Direct Anchor to Anchor
distance, ft.
If the above equation is satisfied, then the system is adequately flexible
and no stress analysis is required. But, this equation has following
limitations:
a) applicable for only ferrous material
b) Not applicable for systems used under severe cyclic conditions.
c) There is no assurance that terminal reactions will be acceptably low,
even if the piping system satisfies the above eqn.

Note: It is always recommended to carry out detail stress analysis,

particularly for critical piping
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Pipe Analysis is of two different types :-

1. Static Analysis
2. Dynamic Analysis
STATIC ANALYSIS

Following major input data are required for static analysis:

Boundary conditions (Forces, Moments, displacement, co-
ordinates),all coordinates (X, Y, Z) of piping layout, pipe
dia., thk., pr at different conditions., temp at different
conditions, all types of fittings, valves, supports on pipe,
Material, Allowable stress, Mod. of Elasticity, Poisson’s
ratio, pipe material and fluid density, Insulation thickness,
density of insulation, Reaction load for safety valve pop up
etc., stress range reduction factor, wind, Hydrotest
pressure
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Static Analysis is carried out to check the following:-

1. Forces and moments at Equipment Nozzle
2. Displacement of pipe from normal position in lateral and
longitudinal directions
3. Sagging
4. Stresses developed at different conditions
 STRESS ANALYSIS

ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

1 Nozzle forces & moments should not exceed allowable values given
by equipment supplier or as per respective equipment codes (e.g.
NEMA SM 23, API 610, etc.)

2. Sagging of straight pipe between two resting supports should not

exceed 2.5mm.

3. The stresses developed should pass the following equations:-

a) Sustained Loading - (Equation 11of ANSI B 31.1/31.3)
b) Occasional Loading - (Equation 12 of ANSI B 31.1/31.3)
c) Thermal Loading - (Equation 13 of ANSI B 31.1/31.3)

4. Forces and moments at anchors and other support should not be

very high

5. Lateral movement of pipe should not be such that it may foul with
adjacent pipe.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Points to be considered to overcome non-conformity to

above acceptance criteria :-

• Providing flexibility to the piping.

• Providing suitable support on the pipe.

Flexibility and Stress Intensification
Flexibility may be in following two directions:-
- Axial Flexibility
- Bending Flexibility
Bending Flexibility is proportional to third power of length as
compared to length itself in case of axial flexibility
Factors Contributing to Flexibility & Stress Intensification
- Thickness of pipe
- Bend radius
- Radius of Pipe
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Flexibility Factor = 1.65/h

where,
h = tR/γ2
h = bend characteristics
t = thickness
R = Bend radius
γ = mean radius of pipe (mean of outer and inner radii)

Stress Intensification Factor (SIF)

SIF = 0.9/h2/3

From above, it is seen that flexibility may be increased at the

expense of stress intensification. Hence, we should judiciously
increase the flexibility so that stresses are not beyond the allowable
limits.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Reinforcement Requirement:
When a pipe which is subjected to external pr. has a hole cut in it for
branch connection, a disc of material which will normally be carrying
tensile stress in hoop direction is removed and some alternate path
must be provided for the loads which were originally carried via the
disc. ASME B31.1 (Fig. 104.3.1 -D) indicates ‘Area Replacement’ or
compensation whereby within a specified distance from the edge of
the hole, an additional area of material removed. Occasionally,
reinforcement has to be provided at branch intersections which is to
cater for thermal stresses.
In case of multiple branch from one header, proper spacing should
be maintained so that the reinforcement zones should not overlap,
otherwise combined reinforcement for two or more adjacent
openings may be provided. In such case, minimum distance
between centres of any two of these openings should preferably be
at least 1.5 times their average diameter and the area of
reinforcement between them shall be at least equal to 50% of the
total required for these two openings.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Flexibility And Looping

Looping is a common practice for providing flexibility in piping system

Loop is defined as a curve/bend provided in a long running pipe so as to

increase flexibility, thereby reducing the thermal stresses occurring in the
pipe. More the temperature of flowing fluid, more closer should be the
loop.

As a thumb rule, following spacing of loop may be considered at the

beginning of piping layout preparation:

1. In Hot Line of temperature above 500 ºC, a loop is considered at

every 30 Mts of straight length of pipe.

2. In Hot Line of temperature 300-500 ºC a loop is considered at every

45 mts of straight length of pipe.

3. In Hot Line of temp upto 300 ºC, a loop is considered at every 60

mtrs. of straight length of pipe.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Flexibility And Looping (contd.)

4. For Cold (ambient) line a loop is provided at every 100 mts. of st.
length of pipeline.

However, Actual Stress Analysis should be performed,

particularly for critical piping to arrive at the spacing and size of
the loops.

Flexibility And Cold Spring

Cold springing is cutting short for hot piping and cutting long for
cryogenic piping. The advantage is to reduce the anchor forces and
moments transferred to connected equipment due to thermal
expansion of the piping.

Note: Codes states that credit for cold spring should not be
allowed for stress calculation.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Allowable stresses

Allowable tensile stress values for different materials at different

temperatures are indicated in Appendix-A of ASME B31.1. The
allowable stress values in tension are generally obtained as the lowest
of the followings:

1) 1/3rd. of specified minm. tensile strength at temperature

2) 2/3rd. of specified minm. Yield strength at temperature
3) 100% of average stress to produce a creep rate of .01 per 1000 hrs.
(1% in 105 hours)
4) 67% of average stress to produce rupture at the end of 105 hours
5) 80% of the minimum stress to produce rupture at the end of 105
hours

Higher allowable stresses may be permitted for austenitic stainless steel

and nickel alloy steel where greater deformation is not objectionable. In
this case, the Allow. Stress may be upto 90% of yield strength.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Allowable stresses

Allowable stress for the equations 11,12 and 13 of ASME B31.1 are as
follows:
1) SL <= 1.0 Sh -------Eq.11 , Where: SL= Sustained stress (From
formula)
2) SL <= k.Sh -------Eq. 12 Sh= Allowable tensile stress at hot
condition
3) SE <= SA + f(Sh – SL) (From Appendix-I of ASME B31.1)
SE= Thermal stress (From formula)
SA= Stress Range

k= 1.15 for occasional load acting less than 10% of any 24 hr

operating period.
= 1.2 for occasional load acting less than 1% of any 24 hr operating
period.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Self Springing and Stress Range

‘Secondary Stress’ generated by thermal expansion, when of sufficient

initial magnitude, relax in hot condition as a result of local yielding or
creep. A stress reduction takes place and appears stress of reversed
sign when the pipe returns to cold condition. This phenomenon is called
‘Self-springing’ and similar in nature of ‘cold springing’. This means,
even if secondary stress is beyond the yield strength of the material
(max. upto 2x Yield Stress), after a few cycles of application of load, the
component is said to ‘Shake down’ to elastic range.

Thus, in case of secondary load (I,e thermal load), the max. stress will
correspond to 2 x Yield Stress and hence will be more than allowable
‘primary Stress’ for sustained loads.
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Allowable Stress Range for Expansion Stress:

SA= f(1.25Sc + 0.25Sh),

Where, ‘f’ is stress range reduction factor for cyclic condition for total no.
of full temp. cycle over total no. of years during which the system is
expected to be operational (Refer Table 102.3.2(c) of ASME B31.1)

Sc & Sh= Allowable tensile stress at cold & hot condition (Ref.
Appendix-A of ASME B31.1)
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Following major equations shall be followed for stress analysis

calculation:

A) Reaction Loads (forces and Moments):

i) Rh: Reaction load at hot condition ------ Eq. 9 of ASME B31.1
ii) Rc: Reaction load at cold condition -----Eq. 10 of ASME B31.1

B) Stresses: Eq. 11, 12 & 13 (Explained in earlier slides) of ASME B31.1

C) Stress range (SA) : Eq.1 of ASME B31.1

D) Thickness due to internal pressure: Eq. 3 and 4 of ASME B31.1

 TROUBLE SHOOTING
There may be following common causes of failure/ leakage of piping
system, which should be guarded against, while designing and when in
operation:-

1. Steam/Water Hammering:

2. Supports Failure

3. Creep

4. Fatigue

5. Corrosion

6. Erosion
 REFERENCE HANDBOOK/CODES/STANDARDS

Following handbooks, codes and standards are very commonly used in

piping design:
1. Nayyar, Crocker & king

2. Indian Boiler Regulation Act

3. ASTM/ASME/ANSI : B31.1, B31.3, B16.9, B16.11, B16.25, B16.5,B16.47,

36.10, B36.19, A105, A106, A335, A53

4. API: 598, 600, 602

5. AWWA: C207, C208, C504, M11

6. IS: 1239, 3589, 2062, 5312, 1868, 1873, 6392, 1363, 1367, 2712

7. BS: 6755, 10