RESEARCH

CLASIFIED ACCORDING TO RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY USED :
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
– DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
– CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
– EX POST FACTO RESEARCH
– EXSPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (TRUE VS QUASI)
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
– CASE STUDIES
– ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
– DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
– HISTORICAL RESEARCH
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
 TOSTUDY TO WHAT EXTENT
VARIATION IN ONE FACTOR IS
RELATED TO VARIATION ON
ONE OR MORE FACTORS BASED
ON A COEFFICIENT INDEX
 ‘EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
 ALSO KNOWN AS CAUSAL
COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
 PURPOSE = TO STUDY CAUSE-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIPS BY OBSERVING
‘EFFECT’ THAT EXIST AND RELOOKING
AGAIN THE DATA TO UNDERSTAND THE
CAUSAL FACTOR
 DIFFER FROM EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH IN WHICH DATA
COLLECTION IS DONE IN A
CONTROLLED SITUATION
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
EXAMPLE:
 TO IDENTIFY THE ATTRIBUTES OF AN
EFFECTIVE TEACHER443/3/2010 WHICH
HAS BEEN DEFINED AS PERFORMANCE
IN THE ANNUAL ASSESSMENT AND
COMPARING DATA ON STUDENTS’
PERFORMANCE FOR THE LAST 10 YEARS
FROM HIS/HER PERSONAL FILE
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
EXAMPLE:
 TO SEE BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS
AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT OF
YEAR ONE STUDENTS WHO HAD
UNDERGONE OR NOT UNDERGONE
KINDERGARTEN BEFORE
ENTERING SCHOOL
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
EXAMPLE:
 TO IDENTIFY THE ATTRIBUTES OF AN
EFFECTIVE TEACHER WHICH HAS BEEN
DEFINED AS PERFORMANCE IN THE
ANNUAL ASSESSMENT AND COMPARING
DATA ON STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE
FOR THE LAST 10 YEARS FROM HIS/HER
PERSONAL FILE
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
 RESEARCHED AFTER A SITUATION OR
AN EVENT HAS HAPPENED
 THE RESEARCHER WILL LOOK AT ONE
OR MORE ‘EFFECTS’ AND STUDY THE
DATA BY REFLECTING ON PREVIOUS
EVIDENCES TO SEEK THE ANSWERS TO
THE CAUSE, RELATIONSHIPS AND GIVE
EXPLANATIONS
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
STRENGTHS:
1. VERY SUITABLE FOR SITUATIONS
WHERE EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH WHICH IS STRONGER,
IS UNABLE TO BE DONE:
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
– IF IN A SITUATION WHERE FACTORS
SUCH AS SELECTION, CONTROL AND
MANIPULATION OF VARIABLES ARE
UNABLE TO BE DONE TO SEE DIRECT
CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS
– IF LABORATORY CONTROL FOR THE
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IS NOT
PRACTICAL, TOO EXPENSIVE, OR NOT
ETHICAL IF CONDUCTED
 EX POST FACTO’
RESEARCH
2. THIS METHOD PROVIDES USEFUL
INFORMATION ON PHENOMENA
WHICH HAD HAPPENED :
a. WHICH VARIABLE IS RELATED TO WHICH
VARIABLE?
b. UNDER WHICH SITUATION?
c. HOW IS THE SEQUENCE, HOW IS THE
PATTERN LIKE?
WEAKNESSES OF EX POST
FACTO’ RESEARCH
 MAIN – LACK OF CONTROL OVER
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – NOT ABLE TO
MANIPULATE THE VARIABLE WHICH
AFFECT THE ‘EFFECT’ – THEREFORE,
THE NEED TO STUDY AS MANY
POSSIBLE CAUSES WHICH MAY PROVIDE
THE RESULTS -– PROBLEM = CANNOT
BE SURE OF THE CAUSE-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIPS
 WEAKNESSES OF EX POST
FACTO’ RESEARCH
 PROBLEM OF ASCERTAINING THAT ALL
CAUSAL FACTORS HAVE BEEN
INCLUDED IN THE RESEARCH
 COMPLICATIONS DUE TO THE FACT
THAT MAY BE NOT ONE FACTOR IS THE
CAUSE – MAYBE COMBINATIONS OF
SEVERAL FACTORS OR INTERACTIONS
OF SEVERAL FACTORS ARE THE CAUSE
 STEPS TO DO EX POST FACTO
RESEARCH
1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM
2. SURVEY RELATED LITERATURE
3. STATE THE HYPOTHESIS
4. LIST ALL POSSIBLE ASSUMPTIONS
THAT BECOME THE BASIS OF THE
HYPOTHESIS
 STEPS TO DO EX POST FACTO
RESEARCH
5. APPROACH:
a) CHOOSE THE SUBJECTS
b) SELECT DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUE
c) SPECIFY THE CATEGORY TO
CLASSIFY THE DATA WHICH MAY
NOT BE DIRECTLY RELATED, BUT
MAY HAVE RELATIONSHIPS
STEPS TO DO EX POST FACTO
RESEARCH

6. CHECK FOR THE VALIDITY OF

DATA COLLECTION
7. PROVIDE EXPLANATIONS,
ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION OF
RESULTS
 EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 UNLIKE EX POST FACTO DAN
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES WHICH
STRESS ON RELATIONSHIPS /
ASSOCIATIONS, EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH COULD EXPLAIN
CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN VARIABLES
 EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 A DESIGN THAT INVOLVES THE
MANIPULATION OF ONE VARIABLE
(TREATMENT) FOLLOWED BY
OBSERVATIONS MADE ON THE
EFFECT OF THE MANIPULATION
ON ONE OR MORE DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
 EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 THE VARIABLES THAT ARE
MANIPULATED ARE THE
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE OR
TREATMENT VARIABLE OR
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 MOST EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN
EDUCATION USES A GROUP THAT IS
COMPARED TO THE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP AND DO NOT RECEIVE THE
TREATMENT = CONTROL GROUP
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 EXAMPLE: PREEXPERIMENT (ONE-
GROUP PRETEST AND POSTTEST)
O1 X O2
 PROBLEMS IN EXPERIMENT –TO
ASCERTAIN THE SUITABLE CONTROL
GROUP SO THAT ANY CHANGE IN THE
POSTTEST SHOULD BE IDENTIFIED DUE
TO THE TREATMENT WHICH THE
RESEARCHER HAS MANIPULATED
(TRUE) R O1 X O2
R O1 O2
 INTERNAL VALIDITY
THREATS IN EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 = TO WHAT EXTENT EXTRANEOUS
VARIABLES ARE BEING CONTROLLED
BY RESEARCHER
 IF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES ARE NOT
CONTROLLED, THE RESEARCHER IS
NOT CERTAIN THAT THE AFFECTED
CHANGE ON THE EXPERIMENTAL
GROUP IS CAUSED BY THE TREATMENT
OR THE EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

 CONTOH: NONRANDOMIZED CONTROL

GROUP PRETEST-POSTTEST
(Quasi) E O1 X O2
C O1 O2
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 HISTORY
 MATURATION PROCESSES
 PRETESTING PROCEDURES
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 STATISTICAL REGRESSION
 DIFFERENTIAL SELECTION OF
SUBJECTS
 EXPERIMENTAL MORTALITY
 INTERACTION OF SELECTION AND
MATURATION
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING GENERALISATION TO
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

 INTERACTION OF SELECTION & X

 INTERACTION OF PRETESTING & X
 REACTIVE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 MULTIPLE-TREATMENT INTERFERENCE
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 HISTORY
– SITUATION/EVENT OTHER THAN TREATMENT
MAY OCCUR BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND
MEASUREMENT
 MATURATION PROCESSES
– CHANGES (BIOLOGICAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL)
WHICH MAY OCCUR TO THE SUBJECTS AT THE
RIGHT TIME
 PRETESTING PROCEDURES
– ANSWERING THE PRETEST BEFORE
TREATMENT MAY INTERFERE WITH SUBJECT’S
PERFORMANCE IN THE POSTTEST
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
– MAY BE DUE TO INSTRUMENTS THAT ARE
NOT RELIABLE; CHANGES IN INSTRUMENTS;
CHANGES IN LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY
 STATISTICAL REGRESSION
– MAY OCCUR IF STUDENTS WITH EXTREME
SCORES IN THE PRETEST REGRESS
TOWARDS THE MEAN OF THE POSTTEST
EVEN IF WITHOUT TREATMENT
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 DIFFERENTIAL SELECTION OF SUBJECTS
– IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES HAD EXISTED BETWEEN
THE E GROUP AND THE C GROUP EVEN BEFORE THE
TREATMENT WAS ADMINISTERED
 EXPERIMENTAL MORTALITY
– REDUCTION IN NUMBER DUE TO DROP OUTS
 SELECTION-MATURATION INTERACTION
– PREEXISTING MATURATION UNDETECTED DURING
SELECTION ESPECIALLY IN INTACT GROUPS
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
THREATENING EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTER BIAS
 UNINTENTIONAL EFFECTS THAT THE RESEARCHER

HAS ON THE STUDY

HAWTHORNE EFFECT
 SUBJECT EFFECTS

HENRY EFFECT
 CONTROL GROUP KNOWING THEY ARE BEING
EXPERIMENTED ON EXERTING EXTRA EFFORT AND
PERFORMING ABOVE EXPECTED AVERAGE
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
EXAMPLES:
 PIAGET’S RESEARCH ON THE COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
 CASE STUDIES ON UNDER ENROLLED
SCHOOLS IN SABAH
 ETHNOGRAPH STUDIES ON ABROGINIES
IN THE DISTRICT OF GOMBAK
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
TYPES:
 CASE STUDIES
 DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 ETHNOGRAPH STUDIES
 CASE STUDIES
PURPOSE:
TO DO AN INDEPTH STUDY,
example:
BACKGROUND, CURRENT STATUS
AND/OR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
THAT INTERACT FOR EACH GROUP
(INDIVIDUAL, INSTITUTION OR
COMMUNITY)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE
STUDIES
 IT GIVES VERY DETAIL
INFORMATION ABOUT INDIVIDUALS /
GROUP / COMMUNITY
 IT MAY GIVE A DETAILED
EXPLANATION OF A COMPLETE LIFE
CYCLE OR PART OF IT
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE
STUDIES

 NUMBER OF CASES STUDIED MAY

BE SMALL BUT THE NUMBER OF
VARIABLES STUDIED ARE USUALLY
MORE AND MORE INDEPTH IF
COMPARED TO A SURVEY
 DEVELOPMENTAL
RESEARCH
 CONDUCTED TO RESEARCH ON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
INDIVIDUALS / GROUP /
INSTITUTION / COMMUNITY
 DEVELOPMENTAL
RESEARCH
TWO TYPES:
 CROSS-SECTIONAL
 LONGITUDINAL
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 USED TO GAIN INFORMATION ON
AN EVENT, DEVELOPMENT AND/OR
PREVIOUS EDUCATIONAL
EXPERIENCE. PROCESS MAY
INVOLVE STUDYING PREVIOUS
SITUATION, CHECKING ON
CURRENT SITUATION, AND TO
PREDICT IF THE SAME SITUATION
WILL OCCUR AGAIN
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 CONCLUSION ON PREVIOUS EVENT
IS DONE BASED ON COLLECTED
FACTS AND EVIDENCES TO
ANSWER WHY AND HOW THE
EVENT, DEVELOPMENT AND
EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE
OCCURRED
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 USEFUL TO SOLVE PROBLEMS
THAT INVOLVE SENSITIVE ISSUES
 IMPORTANT FOR COLLECTTING
AND DEFINING FACTS AND
EVIDENCES SYSTEMATICALLY AND
OBJECTIVELY
 PROCEDURE FOR
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
2. SPECIFY SOURCE OF EVIDENCE
3. COLLECT EVIDENCE / REFERENCE
MATERIALS
 PRIMARY SOURCE / ORIGINAL (OBSERVATION OR
WITNESSES OF EVENTS OR AUTHENTIC OBJECTS
– EG. ARTIFACTS, SPEECH TEXT, RECORDS ETC.)
 SECONDARY SOURCE (MATERIALS OR
INFORMATION COLLECTED FROM PRIMARY
SOURCES EG. PAINTINGS, FILEMS, NEWS
REPORTS, DOCUMENTS - DANGEROUS – MAY BE
CONFUSING)
 PROCEDURE FOR
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
4. CRITIQUE OF EVIDENCES
 EXTERNAL CRITIQUE: CONFIRMING IF
COLLECTED SOURCES ARE GENUINE AND
RELIABLE (AUTHENTICITY OF PAINTINGS,
SIGNATURES, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ETC.)
 INTERNAL CRITIQUE: CONDUCTED AFTER
AUTHENTICITY OF SOURCE OF INFORMATION IS
CONFIRMED – INVOLVES EVALUATION OF
COLLECTED EVIDENCES– IS IT IMPORTANT?
REQUIRED? ABLE TO EXPLAIN THE
RESEARCHED PHENOMENON?
5. PREPARE THE REPORT
ETHNOGRAPH RESEARCH
ETHNOGRAPHY:
 INDEPTH STUDY OF NATURAL BEHAVIOURS IN
A CULTURE OR SOCIAL GROUP
 PURPOSE – TO UNDERSTAND RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN BEHAVIOUR AND CULTURE
 ALSO REFERS TO THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
 IN EDUCATION – TO UNDERSTAND SCHOOLING
PROCESS EG. IMMIGRANT CHILDREN
 ETHNOGRAPH RESEARCH
 INVOLVES WIDESPREAD OBSERVATIONS
(PARTICIPANT & NONPARTICIPANT)
 STARTS RESEARCH WITHOUT
HYPOTHESIS -- HYPOTHESIS IS
DEVELOPED IN THE PROCESS OF
OBSERVATIONS, AND THE RESEARCHER
EXPLORES AND TEST HIS HYPOTHESIS