WELCOME TO SESSION-2

ACM-C-D03

SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND

TECHNOLOGY

Foundations for different types of

Structures
Construction of Footing, Raft and
Pier Foundation
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

* Footings are the simplest type of foundation in so far as the

construction procedure is concerned. In addition to the normal
exercise of precaution there are relatively few points that require
special attention, namely: the inspection of subsoil conditions, the
relative depth of footings, and the dewatering of the excavation when
necessary.
* The construction of footings for buildings is usually started after the
general grading work is completed at which time the ground is
leveled to an elevation at, or 15 cm below, the bottom of the lowest
floor slab.
* Then the area is excavated by simple or power operated hand tools.
The bottom of the excavation is carefully excavated to the required
depth, the form work for the sides of footing is placed and held by
stakes, and the reinforcement is placed on cement block supports
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

* Before placing the concrete, anchor bolts or column dowels must be

accurately secured on the form work. Short and straight dowels of
small diameter may be placed by hand immediately after the concrete
is poured.

* The form work for the sides may not be necessary and the concrete
may be poured against the vertical sides of the excavation if the soil
does not slough in.

Inspection of subsoil conditions

(1) Natural soil deposits are seldom truly uniform. An apparently
uniform soil stratum often contains pockets or lenses of material
having somewhat different engineering properties.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Inspection of subsoil conditions
(2) It is impractical and almost impossible to ascertain the soil
condition under each footing by ordinary soil boring program.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the engineer to evaluate the
average soil condition based on the soil boring results, and often he
has to make conservative generalizations.

(3) Before the foundation is finally constructed, he must check the

actual conditions in the field.

(4) If the soil conditions at certain footing locations are not as good as
he has assumed, the footing must be either lowered to a stratum
having sufficient bearing power-or enlarged to reduce the pressure
to suit the bearing capacity of the soil. The choice between these
two methods depends upon the relative economy, the time, or other
factors involved. 4
 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Inspection of subsoil conditions
(5) The method for checking the soil conditions at the footing
excavations must be simple and expeditious. The soil conditions
should be inspected after the excavation but before concreting.

(6) For clays or clayey soils, soil samples may be taken by a hand
auger or shovel, and the approximate strength may be determined
by a simple portable unconfined compression tester or by a pocket
size penetrometer. In most cases, the shear strength can be
estimated by the simple thumb tests.

(7) For sand or gravel, some simple penetration tests may be used for
comparison of soil density at various locations.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Inspection of subsoil conditions
(8) The penetration test may be simply the counting of blows required
to drive a certain size reinforcing rod with a specific weight
dropping a given height. (For example a rod of 22 mm diameter
driven by a 4.5 kg hammer falling 45 cm).

(9) Such tests should be made first at locations where the soil density
(and consequently the bearing capacity) is known from the soil
borings or tests, and the results should be used as a basis for
comparison.

(10) If further tests made at any other footing locations encounter

smaller resistance, the adequacy of the soil for sustaining the
design pressure must be carefully investigated by more accurate
tests or load bearing tests.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Relative depth of footings
(1) Any adjacent footings should not be constructed at such different
levels that the construction of the lower footing would disturb the
soil supporting the upper footing, and that the pressure from the
upper footing would not introduce undue additional stress to the soil
under the lower footing.
(2) This difficulty is generally avoided by keeping the difference in
footing elevations not greater than one-half the clear distance
between the footings. For this reason it is always a good practice to
construct the lower footings first, and when necessary to construct
the lower footing at a greater depth than contemplated, the elevation
of the upper footing can be adjusted accordingly.
(3) Sometimes the adjacent footings must be constructed at largely
different levels, for example, when a new basement is constructed
adjacent to footings under an existing first floor. Sheeting may be
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used to retain the adjacent ground when excavation is made.
 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Relative depth of footings
(4) The problem of footings at two different levels is illustrated in Fig.
1 where a wall footing at the first floor adjoins a basement wall. It
is the common practice to lower the first floor footing in gradual
steps down to the level of the basement footing as shown in Fig.
1a. By so doing the natural state of the subsoil is considered
unaltered. An alternative method is shown. in Fig. 1b.

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Fig. 1: Wall Footings at Different Levels
 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Relative depth of footings
(5) In order to construct the basement, an excavation larger than the
basement floor must be made. After the basement wall is matured,
the over excavated area is backfilled with suitable soil.

(6) If the original soil is sand or gravel, and the backfill consists of the
same material which is compacted in layers (15 to 20 cm) to a
density equal to or greater than that of the original soil, the footing
at the first floor may be supported on the backfill.

(7) If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfill, the wall
footing should be stepped down as shown in Fig. 1a or else the wall
itself should be designed to span between the basement wall and a
point on the original ground at several feet from the excavation
line.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Dewatering
(1) The excavation should be kept dry during the construction period
because free water is objectionable for several reasons. In clay or
clayey soils, free water tends to soften the upper portion of the soil
and causes settlement of footings.

(2) The soil conditions under water cannot be readily inspected.

Excavation in water is expensive and not satisfactory. Furthermore,
the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, particularly
when the water is not stagnant.

(3) To avoid the difficulties mentioned above, excavations below

ground water level are kept dry by using suitable dewatering
methods available.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF FRAFT OUNDATION

* Raft foundations are almost invariably constructed of reinforced

concrete.

* To avoid excessive shrinkage cracks rafts are poured in small areas,

commonly in the vicinity of 10 mx10 m.

* Construction joints should be carefully located at sections of low

shear stress. The common practice is to locate them along the center
lines between columns.

* An elapse of at least 24 hours is desired between pours of adjacent

areas. Reinforcing bars should be continuous across the joints. If bar
splicing is needed it is prudent to use conservative lap lengths.
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 CONSTRUCTION OF FRAFT OUNDATION

* The concrete should be strong enough to transfer the shear stress

across the joint. This is commonly done by providing a shear key
along the joint.

* The shear key usually occupies the middle third of the thickness of
the mat and should be designed for the maximum shear stress.

* If necessary, the mat may be thickened to provide sufficient strength

in the joints.

* Fig. 2 to Fig. 8 shows construction of different raft foundations.

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 RAFT FOUNDATION

Fig. 2: Typical Arrangement for Raft Foundation Construction .

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 RAFT FOUNDATION

Fig. 3: Rectangular Raft Foundation under Construction

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 RAFT FOUNDATION

Fig. 4: basement Raft Foundation under Construction

Fig. 5: Circular Raft Foundation for Water Tank under Construction

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 CONSTRUCTION OF RAFT FOUNDATION

(a) Site (b) Rubble Soling (c) PCC

(d) Reinforcement (e) RCC (f) Finished Raft

Fig. 6: Construction of Raft Foundation
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 CONSTRUCTION OF RAFT FOUNDATION

Fig. 7: Metre-Panel-Pile for Raft Foundation

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 CONSTRUCTION OF RAFT FOUNDATION

Fig. 8: Metre-Panel-Pile for Raft Foundation 18

 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS

* The most common construction procedure used involves rotary

drilling. There are three major types of construction methods:

1 Dry Method

2 Casing Method and

3 Wet Method.

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CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS (A)
DRY METHOD
* This method is employed in soils and rocks that are above the
water table and that will not cave in when the hole is drilled to its
full depth. The sequence of construction, shown in Fig. 9, is as
follows:
Step 1. The excavation is completed (and belled if desired), using
proper drilling tools, and the spoils from the hole are deposited
nearby. (Fig. 9a.)
Step 2. Concrete is then poured into the cylindrical hole. (Fig. 9b.)
Step 3. If desired, a rebar cage is placed in the upper portion of the
shaft. (Fig. 9c.)
Step 4. Concreting is then completed, and the drilled shaft will be as
shown in Fig. 9d.

Fig. 10 shows the construction of drilled shaft by dry method.

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 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(A) DRY METHOD

(a) initiating drilling;

(b) starting concrete pour;
(c) placing rebar cage;
(d) completed shaft

Fig. 9: Dry method of construction: 21

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(A) DRY METHOD

Figure 10: Drilled Shaft Construction Using Dry Method

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 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(B) CASING METHOD
* This method is used in soils or rocks in which caving or excessive
deformation is likely to occur when the borehole is excavated. The
sequence of construction is shown in Fig. 55 and may be
explained in following steps:

Step 1 The excavation procedure is initiated as in the case of the dry

method of construction. (Fig. 11a.)
Step 2 When the caving soil is encountered, bentonite slurry is
introduced into the borehole. (Fig. 11b.) Drilling is continued
until the excavation goes past the caving soil and a layer of
impermeable soil or rock is encountered.
Step 3 A casing is then introduced into the hole. (Fig. 11c.)
Step 4 The slurry is bailed out of the casing with a submersible
pump. (Fig. 11d.)
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 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(B) CASING METHOD

(a) initiating drilling; (b) drilling with slurry; (c) introducing casing;
(d) casing is sealed and slurry is being removed from interior of casing;
(e) drilling below casing; (f) underreaming; (g) removing casing; (h) completed shaft
Fig. 11: Casing Method of Construction 24
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS (B)
CASING METHOD

Step 5 A smaller drill that can pass through the casing is introduced
into the hole, and excavation continues. (Fig. 11e.)
Step 6 If needed, the base of the excavated hole can then be
enlarged, using an underreamer. (Fig. 11f.)
Step 7. If reinforcing steel is needed, the rebar cage needs to extend
the full length of the excavation. Concrete is then poured into
the excavation and the casing is gradually pulled out. Fig.
11g.)
Step 8. Fig. 11h shows the completed drilled shaft.

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 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(C) WET METHOD

* This method is sometimes referred to as the slurry displacement

method. Slurry is used to keep the borehole open during the entire
depth of excavation. (Fig. 12).

* Following are the steps involved in the wet method of

construction:
Step 1 Excavation continues to full depth with slurry. (Fig. 12a.)
Step 2 If reinforcement is required, the rebar cage is placed in the
slurry. (Fig. 12b.)
Step 3 Concrete that will displace the volume of slurry is then
placed in the drill hole. (Fig. 12c.)
Step 4 Fig. 12d shows the completed drilled shaft.
* Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 shows the construction by wet method
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CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(C) WET METHOD

(a) drilling to full depth with slurry; (b) placing rebar cage;
(c) placing concrete; (d) completed shaft

Fig. 12: Slurry Method of Construction 27

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(C) WET METHOD

Figure 13: Drilled shaft construction using wet method

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CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE FOR DRILLED SHAFTS
(C) WET METHOD

(a) A typical auger; (b) a reinforcement cage; (c) a cleanout

Fig. 14: Drilled shaft construction 29
THANK YOU

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