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A Signal
A signal is a function of one or more variables,
which conveys information on the nature of some
physical phenomena.
Examples
– f(t) : a voice signal, a music signal
– f ( x , y ) : an image signal, a picture
– f ( x , y , t ) : a video signal
– xn : a sequence of data ( n: integer )
– bn : a bit stream ( b:1 or 0 )
– continuous-time, discrete-time
– analog, digital
Human Perceptible/Machine Processed
A
Signal
A System
An entity that manipulates one or more signals to
accomplish some function, including yielding some
new signals.
input output
System
signal signal
Examples
– an electric circuit
– a telephone handset
– a PC software receiving pictures from Internet
– a TV set
– a computer with some software handling some data
System
• a system transforms input signals into output signals
• a system is a function mapping input signals into out
put signals
• we concentrate on systems with one input and one o
utput signal, i.e., single-input, single-output (SISO) sy
stems
• notation:
– y = S(u) means the system S acts on input signal u to produ
ce output signal y
Typical Examples of Signals/Systems
Concerned
Communication Systems
s(t r(t
Transmitter Channel Receiver
) )
Message Transmitted Received Estimate of
signal signal signal message
(information signal
) data, text, (information)
audio, video
noise, loss
distortion,
interference
Typical Examples of Signals/Systems
Concerned
Computers
Signal Processing Systems
– software systems processing the signal by computation/
memory
– examples : audio enhancement systems, picture processing
systems, video compression systems, voice recognition
systems, array signal processors, equalizers, etc.
Audio
Enhancement
Picture Processing
Typical Examples of Signals/Systems
Concerned
Networks
user B
user A
Typical Examples of Signals/Systems
Concerned
Information Retrieval Systems
Search
Internet User
Engine
Global Internet
Digital
Libraries, Electronic
Virtual Google, Home,
Intelligent Network
Museums, Facebook, Electronic Offices,
. YouTube, Electronic Entertainment
. Commerce, Distant .
. Amazon Government .
Network Learning,
. Services, .
. Banking, . .
. . . .
. . .
.
The Global Internet
Network Technology Connects Everywhere Globally
18
Classification of Signals
• Continuous time and Discrete time signals
• Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals
• Periodic & A periodic Signals
• Even & Odd Signals
• Energy & Power Signals
Continuous v/S Discrete Signals
Continuous-time
A signal that is
specified for every
value of time t.
Discrete-time
A signal that is
specified only at
discrete
values of time
t. 18
Continuous-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for all points in time
• Function of time
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time
• Commonly found in the physical world
– ex. Human speech
• Displayed graphically as a line
x(t)
t
21
Discrete-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
• Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time signal
– Taking the value of the original waveform at specific intervals in time
• Function of the sample value, n
– Write as x[n]
– Often called a sequence
• Commonly found in the digital world
– ex. wav file or mp3
• Displayed graphically as individual values
– Called a “stem” plot
x[n]
Sample number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 22
Examples: CT vs. DT Signals
x(t ) x[n]
t n
23
Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals
Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.
Deterministic v/s Stochastic Signal
Signals that can be written in any
mathematical expression are called
deterministic signal.
(sine,cosine..etc)
Signals that cann’t be written in mathematical
expression are called stochastic signals.
(impulse,noise..etc)
25
Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals Contd.
27
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
30
Even v/s Odd Signals
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even
signal if
CT:
DT:
Property:
Area:
Even signal:
Odd signal:
32
Even and Odd Parts of Functions
g ( t ) + g ( -t )
The even part of a function is g e ( t )
2
g ( t ) - g ( -t )
The odd part of a function is g o ( t )
2
A function whose even part is zero, is odd and a function
whose odd part is zero, is even.
Energy v/s Power Signals
Signal with finite energy (zero
power)
�x ( t )
2
Ex dt
-�
• The units of signal energy depends on the unit of th
e signal.
Energy and Power Signals Contd.
Power Signal
• Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that cas
eit is more convenient to deal with average signal p
ower.
• For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
• Average power of the signal is given by
T /2
1
x ( t ) dt
2
Px lim
T ��T �
-T / 2
Energy and Power Signals Contd.
T T
0<E<∞ and P =0
�x [ n ]
2
Ex
n -�
Signal Energy and Power for DT Si
gnal Contd.
The average signal power of a discrete time power signal
x[n] is
N -1
1
�x [ n]
2
Px lim
N �� 2 N
n - N
For a periodic signal x[n] the average signal power is
1
� x [ n]
2
Px
N n N
Scaling x[n
x(t) ]
?
x(at), a<1
?
x(at), a>1
Periodic Signal
x [n] x [n + N ] x [n + mN ] , N 0
Even/Odd Signals
Even x(-t ) x(t ) , x[-n] x[n]
1 1
x1 (t ) [ x(t ) + x(-t )] , x 2 (t ) [ x(t ) - x(-t )]
2 2
Even/Odd
Even Odd
x(- x(-t)=-x(t)
t)=x(t)
Exponential/Sinusoidal Signals
Basic Building Blocks from which one can construct
many different signals and define frameworks for
analyzing many different signals efficiently
jw 0 t 2π
x (t ) e , fundamental period T0
|ω0|
2p
fundamental frequency w 0
T0
w 0 : rad / sec
Exponential/Sinusoidal Signals
Vector Space
jk w 0 t
{ k ( t ) e , k 0 , 1, 2 ,....}
2π
fundamental period Tk
|kω0|
2π
all with common period T1
|ω0|
Exponential/Sinusoidal Signals
Sinusoidal signal
j (w 0t + )
x ( t ) A cos( w 0 t + ) Re{ Ae }
General format
j ( r + jw 0 ) t j (w 0 t + )
x (t ) Ce | C | e e
at
| C | e e
rt
Discrete-Time
jw 0 n
x[ n ] e ,w 0 : rad
x [ n ] A cos (w 0 n + )
x[ n ] C e n
Exponential/Sinusoidal Signals
Important Differences Between Continuous-time and
Discrete-time Exponential/Sinusoidal Signals
– For discrete-time, signals with frequencies ω0 and
ω0 +m . 2π are identical. This is Not true for
continuous-time.
j ( w 0 + m 2 p ) n jw 0 n
e e
j (w 0 + ) t j (w 0 + ) t
e e
see : Fig.1.27, p.27 of text
Unit Impulse and Unit Step Functions
Continuous-time
– (First
t) , u(t)
Derivative
du ( t )
(t )
dt
see: Fig1.33, Fig1.34, P,33 of text
– Running Integral
t
u (t ) ( ) d
– Sampling property -
0 , n 0 0 , n 0
[n ] u[n ]
1 , n 0 1 , n 0
– First difference
x (t ) - x (t - )
[n ] u[n ] - u[n - 1] ( lim [ ])
– Running Sum
n
u[n ]
m -
[m ]
u[n ]
k0
[n - k ]
– Sampling property
x[n] [n - n0 ] x[n0 ] [n - n0 ]
Unit Impulse & Unit Step
Discrete-time
δ [n]
u [n]
n
u [n – 1]
) )
0) 分析
Vector Space Representation of Discrete-
time Signals
n extended to
(⋯, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, ⋯ )= δ[ ]
(⋯, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, ⋯ )=δ[–1]
(⋯, 0, 0, 0, ⋯, 0, 1, ⋯ )=δ[ –k ]
分析
1.2 Systems
Continuous/Discrete-time Systems
S1 S2
– Parallel
S1
+
S2
Interconnections of Systems
– Feedback
+ S1
S2
– Combinations
Stability
– stable : bounded inputs lead to bounded outputs
Time Invariance
– time invariant : behavior and characteristic of the
system are fixed over time
Stability
Examples of unstable systems
Time Invariance
x(t- y(t) y(t-
x(t) T0)
T0)
Linearity
– linear : superposition property
xk [ n ] y k [ n ]
a x [n ] a
k k yk [n ]
k
– scaling
k
or homogeneity
k
property
x[n ] y[n ]
ax[n ] ay[n ]
– additive property
xi [n] yi [n]
x1[n] + x2 [n] y1[n] + y2 [n]
Memoryless/With Memory
– Memoryless : output at a given time depends only on
the input at the same time
eg.
y [ n ] ( ax [ n ] - x [ n ])
2 2
– With Memory
eg. n
y[n ]
k -
x[k ]
Invertibility
– invertible : distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs, i.e.
an inverse system exits
eg.
n
y[ n ] x[ k ]
k -