103-Introduction To Digit Comm

Revision on Digital
Communications
Digital Modulation and Detection

Channel Coding Fundamentals
1 2018/1/25
Mobile Communication System
Review of Modulation
• Why we need modulation?
– Small antenna size.
– Limits noise and interference and
– Inter-symbol interference
• Antenna size is inversely proportional to frequency
– e.g., 3 kHz  50 km antenna
3 GHz  5 cm antenna
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Analog and Digital Signals

• Analog Signal (Continuous signal)
Amplitude
S(t)
Time
0
• Digital Signal (Discrete signal)

Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0 1
+
0 Time
_
Bit
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Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Message signal Time

x(t)
Carrier signal Time
AM signal
s(t) Time
Amplitude of carrier signal is varied as the message signal to be transmitted.

Frequency of carrier signal is kept constant.
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Frequency Modulation (FM)
Message signal Time

x(t)
Carrier signal Time
FM signal Time
s(t)
FM integrates message signal with carrier signal by varying the instantaneous

frequency.
Amplitude of carrier signal is kept constant.
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Digital Modulation and Detection

• Digital modulation offers a number of other advantages over analog
modulation
– Higher data rates
– Powerful error correction techniques
– Resistance to channel impairments
– More efficient multiple access strategies
– Better security and privacy
• Digital modulation and detection
– Transferring information in the form of bits over a communications
channel
– Binary digits taking on the values of either 1 or 0
– Digital modulation consists of mapping the information bits into an
analog signal for transmission over the channel
– Detection consists of determining the original bit sequence based on the
signal received over the channel.
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Categories of Digital Modulation

• Frequency modulation
– also called constant envelope modulation or nonlinear
modulation
• Amplitude/Phase modulation
– also called linear modulation.
• Linear vs Nonlinear
– Linear modulation generally has better spectral properties than
nonlinear modulation
– more sensitive to variations from fading and interference
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Digital Modulation Concept

• The bit rate defines the rate at which information is
passed.
• The baud (or signalling) rate defines the number of
symbols per second.
• Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states,
where M = 2n. This is called M-ary signalling.
• The maximum rate of information transfer through a
baseband channel is given by:
– Capacity fb = 2Wlog2M bits per second
– where W = bandwidth of modulating baseband signal
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Digital Modulation
• Design Issues (Often Conflicting)
– Data Rate
– Spectral Efficiency
– Power Efficiency
– Performance (Channel Impairments and Noise)
– Cost
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• 1/0 represented by two different frequencies offset from carrier frequency
Carrier signal 1 Time

for message signal ‘1’
Carrier signal 2
Time
for message signal ‘0’
1 0 1 1 0 1
Message signal
x(t) Time
FSK signal Time

s(t)
• FSK has high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) but low spectral efficiency due to
the spectral spreading.
• FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies
10 as different states. 2018/1/25
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• Use alternative sine wave phase to encode bits
Carrier signal
Time
sin( 2f ct )
Carrier signal
Time
sin( 2f ct   )
1 0 1 1 0 1
Message signal Time
x(t)
PSK signal Time
s(t)
• PSK has a perfect SNR but it must be demodulated synchronously.

• PSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases
11 and amplitudes as different states. 2018/1/25
QPSK Signal Constellation

Signal Space Representation
Q Q
0,1
1 0 1,1 0,0
I I
1,0
(a) BPSK (b) QPSK

QPSK undergoes four changes in phase in one cycle and can represent four binary
bit patterns of data, it can double the bandwidth of the carrier than BPSK.
QPSK use 4 phase shifts to notate 4 different combinations of input bits.
For example, use π/2 phase shifts to notate 2 sequence bits 0,0
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All Possible State Transitions in /4 QPSK
Different with QPSK and BPSK,

π /4 QPSK is not encoded in the
absolute position, but in the
phase offset.
It is popular in most second generation systems, such as North American Digital

Cellular and Japanese Digital Cellular.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Combination of AM and PSK
Q
1000 1100 0100 0000
1001 1101 0101 0001

I
1011 1111 0111 0011
1010 1110 0110 0010
Rectangular constellation of 16QAM
M-ary schemes are more bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise.
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Introductions to Channel Coding
Information to
be transmitted Source Channel
Modulation Transmitter
coding coding
Channel
Information
received Source Channel
Channel Demodulation Receiver
decoding decoding
15
Channel Coding
• Block Codes
• Cyclic Codes
• Convolutional Codes
• Interleaving
• Turbo Codes
• ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
– Stop-and-wait ARQ
– Selective-repeat ARQ
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Forward Error Correction (FEC)

• The key idea of FEC is to transmit enough redundant data
to allow receiver to recover from errors all by itself. No
sender retransmission required.
• The major categories of FEC codes are
– Block codes,
– Cyclic codes,
– Convolutional codes, and
– Turbo codes, etc.
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Linear Block Codes

• Information is divided into blocks of length k
• r parity bits or check bits are added to each block (total
length n = k + r).
• Code rate R = k/n
• Decoder looks for codeword closest to received vector
(code vector + error vector)
• Tradeoffs between
– Efficiency
– Reliability
– Encoding/Decoding complexity
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Linear Block Codes

• The uncoded k data bits be represented by the m vector:
m=(m1, m2, …, mk)
The corresponding codeword be represented by the n-bit c vector:
c=(c1, c2, …ck, ck+1, …, cn-1, cn)
• Each parity bit consists of weighted modulo 2 sum of the data bits represented
by  symbol.
c1  m1

c2  m2
...

ck  mk
c  m p
1 1( k 1)  m2 p2 ( k 1)  ...  mk pk ( k 1)
 k 1
...

cn  m1 p1n  m2 p2 n  ...  mk pkn
Where pij is the binary weight of the particular data bit.
The idea is to add parity at the transmitting side and use the parity check matrix
to take care of possible errors in transmission.
19
Linear Block Codes

 Linear Block Code
represent the codeword C as a matrix operation on the uncoded data
vector m
C=mG
where G is the generator matrix.
G = [Ik | P]k × n,
Here P is the parity matrix, and I is unit matrix.
pi = Remainder of [xn-k+i-1/g(x)] for i=1, 2, .., k,
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Linear Block Codes: Example

Example : Find linear block code encoder G if code generator
polynomial g(x)=1+x+x3 for a (7, 4) code.
We have n = Total number of bits = 7, k = Number of information bits = 4,

r = Number of parity bits = n - k = 3.
1 0 0 p1 
0 1 0 p 

G  I | P    2 
,
 
 
0 01 pk 
where
x n  k  i 1

pi  Re mainder of  , i  1, 2, , k
 g ( x) 
21
Linear Block Codes: Example (Continued)

 x3 
p1  Re  3
 1  x  110
1  x  x 
 x4 
p2  Re    x  x 2
 011 1000110
1  x  x 
3
0100011
G 
 x5  0010111
p3  Re    1  x  x 2
 111  
1  x  x 
3
0001101
 x6 
p4  Re  3
 1  x 2
 101
1  x  x 
22
Linear Block Codes: Parity Check Matrix
 The parity check matrix

H = [PT | In-k ], where PT is the transpose of the matrix P.
C  mG  [m | mP]k n

Then,
P 
CH  [m | mP]
T
  mP  mP  0
 I nk 
23 2018/1/25
Linear Block Codes: Parity Check Matrix

Parity
Message Generator Code Code check Null
vector matrix Vector Vector matrix vector
m G C C H 0
Operations of the generator matrix and the parity check matrix
The parity check matrix H is used to detect errors in the received code by using the fact
that c * HT = 0 ( null vector)
Let x = c e be the received message where c is the correct code and e is the error
Compute S = x * HT =( c e ) * HT =c HT e HT = e HT
If S is 0 then message is correct else there are errors.
24
Parity Check: Example
• Consider a (7,4) linear block code, given by G as
1000111 
0100110  1110100
G  Then, H  1101010
0010101  1011001
 
 0001011 
For m = [1 0 1 1] and c = mG = [1 0 1 1 0 0 1].

If there is no error, the received vector x=c, and s=cHT=[0 0 0]
25
Parity Check: Example (Continued)

Let c suffer an error such that the received vector
x=c e
=[ 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 ][ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ]
=[ 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 ].
Then,
s=xHT 111 
110 
 
101 
= 1001001011  [101]
 
100 
 
010
001
T
=(eH )  
26 2018/1/25
Cyclic Codes
• Definition: A code C is cyclic if
(i) C is a linear code;
(ii) any cyclic shift of a codeword is also a codeword, i.e.
whenever a0,… an -1  C, then also an -1 a0 … an –2  C.
Example
Code C = {000, 101, 011, 110} is cyclic.
It is a block code which uses a shift register to perform encoding

and decoding, its advantage is easy to encode and decode.
Widely used in FEC system.
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Cyclic Codes
• The cyclic codeword with n bits is expressed in polynomial as
c(x)=c1xn-1 +c2xn-2……+ cn
where ci is either 1 or 0.
thus multiplication by x corresponds to a cyclic shift.
The codeword can be also expressed by the data polynomial m(x) and
the check polynomial cp(x),
c(x) = m(x) xn-k + cp(x)
where cp(x) = remainder from dividing m(x) xn-k by generator g(x)
if the received signal is c(x) + e(x) where e(x) is the error polynomial .
To check if received signal is error free, the s(x) is the remainder from
dividing c(x) + e(x) by g(x). If s(x) = 0 then the received signal is
considered error free.
28 2018/1/25
Cyclic Code: Example

Example : Find the code words c(x) if m(x)=1+x+x2 and g(x)=1+x+x3
for (7,4) cyclic code.
We have n = Total number of bits = 7, k = Number of information bits = 4,

r = Number of parity bits = n - k = 3.
 m( x ) x n  k 
c p ( x)  rem 


 g ( x) 
x  x  x 
5 4 3
 rem  3  x
 x  x 1 
Then,
n k
c( x)  m( x) x  c p ( x)  x  x  x  x
3 4 5
29 2018/1/25
Convolutional Codes
• Encoding of information stream rather than information
blocks
– Convert the entire data stream into one single code word.
– Real time error correction.
• Value of certain information symbol also affects the
encoding of next M information symbols, i.e., memory M
• Easy implementation using shift register
–  Assuming k inputs and n outputs, so the code rate is defined
as r = k/n.
• Decoding is mostly performed by the Viterbi Algorithm
(not covered here)
• Widely used in GSM
30 2018/1/25
Convolutional Codes: (n=2, k=1, M=2) Encoder
y1
Input Output
x D1 D2 c
y2
Di -- Register
Input: 1 1 1 0 0 0 …
Output: 11 01 10 01 11 00 …
Input: 1 0 1 0 0 0 …
Output: 11 10 00 10 11 00 …
31
State Diagram of Encoder

Each new input bit causes a transition from one state to
another. 10/1
11
01/1 01/0
10/0
10 01
00/1
11/1 11/0
00
32
00/0
Tree Diagram of Encoder

0
00
……
First input
00 First output
00
…11001 11 11
10
11
01 … 10 11 11 01 11
10
11
10
00
00
1 01
01
10
11
00
11
11
01
10
00
01 01
11
01
00
10
01
10
10
33
Trellis Diagram of Encoder

… 11 0 0 1
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
11 11 11 11 11 11
11
11
10 10 10 10 10 10
…
00 00 00
10
10 10 10
01 01 01 01 01 01
01 01 01 01
01 01 01
11 11 11 11 11 11
10 10 10
34
Interleaving
• To protect the data from burst errors.
• No error-correcting capability.
• Always used in conjunction with an error-correcting code.
• No redundancy.
• Introduce additional delay as the sequence need to be
processed block by block.
35 2018/1/25
Concept of Interleaving
Input Data a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9, …
Write
a1, a2, a3, a4
a5, a6, a7, a8
Read
Interleaving a9, a10, a11, a12
a13, a14, a15, a16
Transmitting a1, a5, a9, a13, a2, a6, a10, a14, a3, …
Data
Read
a1, a2, a3, a4
a5, a6, a7, a8
Write
De-Interleaving a9, a10, a11, a12

a13, a14, a15, a16
Output Data a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9, …
36 2018/1/25
Interleaving: Example
Burst error
Transmitting 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,…
Data
Read
0, 1, 0, 0
Write 0, 1, 0, 0
De-Interleaving
0, 1, 0, 0
1, 0, 0, 0
Output Data 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, …
Discrete error
37 2018/1/25
Turbo Codes
• A brief historic of turbo codes :
– The turbo code concept was first introduced by C. Berrou in 1993.
Today, Turbo Codes are considered as the most efficient coding
schemes for FEC.
• Scheme with known components (convolutional or block codes,
interleaving, etc.)
• Performance close to the Shannon Limit at modest complexity!
• Turbo codes have been proposed for low-power applications such
as satellite communications, as well as for interference limited
applications such as third generation cellular, personal
communication services, ad hoc and sensor networks.
38 2018/1/25
Turbo Codes: Encoder
Data X
X
Source
Convolutional Encoder
1 Y1
Interleaving Y
(Y1, Y2)
Convolutional Encoder Y2
2
X: Information
Yi: Redundancy Information
39
Turbo Codes: Decoder
De-interleaving
Convolutional
Y1 Interleaver
Decoder 1
X Interleaving Convolutional
Decoder 2 De-interleaving X’
Y2
X’: Decoded Information
40
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination
Transmit Transmit
Encoder Modulation Demodulation Decoder
Controller Controller
Acknowledge
When the receiver detects bit errors in a packet, drop the packet and inform the sender
to transmit it again.
41 2018/1/25
Stop-And-Wait ARQ (SAW ARQ)

Retransmission
Transmitting 1 2 3 3
Time
Data
Received Data 1 2 3
Time
Error
Output Data 1 2 3
Time
ACK: Acknowledgement
NAK: Negative ACK
42 2018/1/25
Go-Back-N ARQ (GBN ARQ)

Go-back 3 Go-back 5
Transmitting 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 7 5
Time
Data
Received Data 1 2 3 4 5
Time
Error Error
Output Data 1 2 3 4 5
Time
Packets without ACK need to be buffered by the sender.

The receiver accepts in-order packets, only a packet buffer is needed.
GBN ARQ is better suited for the burst error environment.
43
Selective-Repeat ARQ (SR ARQ)

Retransmission Retransmission
Transmitting 1 2 3 4 5 3 6 7 8 9 7
Time
Data
Received Data 1 2 4 5 3 6 8 9 7
Time
Error Error
Buffer 1 2 4 5 3 6 8 9 7
Time
Output Data 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time
44 2018/1/25
Summary
• Analog and Digital modulation
– AM, FM
– FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM
• Channel Coding
– Block Codes,
– Cyclic Codes,
– Convolutional Codes,
– Interleaving,
– Turbo Codes,
– ARQ
45 2018/1/25

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103-Introduction To Digit Comm

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Revision on Digital

Digital Modulation and Detection

Analog and Digital Signals

• Digital Signal (Discrete signal)

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Message signal Time

Carrier signal Time

Amplitude of carrier signal is varied as the message signal to be transmitted.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Message signal Time

Carrier signal Time

FM integrates message signal with carrier signal by varying the instantaneous

Digital Modulation and Detection

Categories of Digital Modulation

Digital Modulation Concept

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Carrier signal 1 Time

FSK signal Time

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• PSK has a perfect SNR but it must be demodulated synchronously.

QPSK Signal Constellation

(a) BPSK (b) QPSK

All Possible State Transitions in /4 QPSK

Different with QPSK and BPSK,

It is popular in most second generation systems, such as North American Digital

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

1000 1100 0100 0000

1001 1101 0101 0001

1011 1111 0111 0011

1010 1110 0110 0010

Rectangular constellation of 16QAM

Introductions to Channel Coding

Forward Error Correction (FEC)

Linear Block Codes

Linear Block Codes

Linear Block Codes

Linear Block Codes: Example

We have n = Total number of bits = 7, k = Number of information bits = 4,

Linear Block Codes: Example (Continued)

Linear Block Codes: Parity Check Matrix

 The parity check matrix

Linear Block Codes: Parity Check Matrix

Operations of the generator matrix and the parity check matrix

Parity Check: Example

• Consider a (7,4) linear block code, given by G as

For m = [1 0 1 1] and c = mG = [1 0 1 1 0 0 1].

Parity Check: Example (Continued)

It is a block code which uses a shift register to perform encoding

Cyclic Code: Example

We have n = Total number of bits = 7, k = Number of information bits = 4,

Convolutional Codes: (n=2, k=1, M=2) Encoder

State Diagram of Encoder

Tree Diagram of Encoder

Trellis Diagram of Encoder

De-Interleaving a9, a10, a11, a12

Turbo Codes: Encoder

Turbo Codes: Decoder

X’: Decoded Information

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Stop-And-Wait ARQ (SAW ARQ)

Go-Back-N ARQ (GBN ARQ)

Packets without ACK need to be buffered by the sender.