SEDIMENTARY PROCESS

Physical Process
Biological Process
Chemical Process
PHYSICAL PROCESS
 Sedimentary Cycle
• Weathering
– Make particle
• Erosion
– Put particle in motion
• Transport
– Move particle
• Deposition
– Stop particle motion
• Not necessarily continuous (rest stops)
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/chemistry/changestoearthandatmosphere/0rocksrev5.shtml
Transportation: Rounding -
increases with length of
transportation history.

Boulders have
been abraded
Transportation
Deposition : any process that lays down material

Environment of Deposition : location in which

deposition occurs. Use the Principle of
Uniformitarianism to study ancient environments
 Definitions
• Fluid flow (Hydraulics)
– Fluid
• Substance that changes shape easily and continuosly
• Negligeable resistance to shear
• Deforms readily by flow
– Apply minimal stress
– Moves particles
– Agents
• Water
• Water containing various amounts of sediment
• Air
• Volcanic gasses/ particles
 Definitions
• Fundamental Properties
– Density (Rho (r))
• Mass/unit volume
–Water ~ 700 x air
ρ = 0.998 g/ml @ 20°C
• Density decreases with increased temperature
– Impact on fluid dynamics
• Ability of force to impact particle within fluid
and on bed
• Rate of settling of particles
• Rate of occurrence of gravity -driven downslope
movement of particles
–rH20 > r air
 Definitions

• Fundamental Properties
– Viscosity
• Mu (m)
– Water ~ 50 x air
• m = measure of ability of fluids to flow (resistance of
substance to change shape)
– High viscosity = sluggish (molasses, ice)
– Low viscosity = flows readily (air, water)
• Changes with temperature (Viscosity decreases
with temperature) and sediment load (viscosity
increases with sediment load)
• Not always uniform throughout body
– Changes with depth
 Types of Fluids:
Strain (deformational) Response to Stress (external
forces)
• Newtonian fluids
– normal fluids; no yield stress
• strain (deformation);
proportional to stress, (water)
• Non-Newtonian
– no yield stress;
• variable strain response to
stress (high stress generally
induces greater strain rates
{flow})
– examples: mayonnaise, water
saturated mud
 Types of Fluids:
Strain (deformational) Response to Stress (external
forces)
• Bingham Plastics:
– have a yield stress (don't flow
at infinitesimal stress)
• example: pre-set concrete;
water saturated, clay-rich
surficial material such as
mud/debris flows
• Thixotropic fluids:
– plastics with variable
stress/strain relationships
• quicksand??
 Why do particles move?

• Entrainment
• Transport/ Flow
 Entrainment
• Basic forces acting on particle
– Gravity, drag force, lift force
• Gravity:
• Drag force: measure of friction between water
and bottom of water (channel)/ particles
• Lift force: caused by Bernouli effect
 Bernouli Force
• (rgh) + (1/2 rm2)+P+Eloss = constant
Static P + dynamic P
• Potential energy= rgh
• Kinetic energy= 1/2 rm2
• Pressure energy= P
• Thus pressure on grain decreases, creates lift force

Faster current increases likelihood that gravity, lift and drag

will be positive, and grain will be picked up, ready to be
carried away
Why it’s not so simple: grain size, friction, sorting, bed
roughness, electrostatic attraction/ cohesion
 Flow
• Types of flow
– Laminar
• Orderly, ~ parallel flow lines
– Turbulent
• Particles everywhere! Flow lines change constantly
– Eddies
– Swirls
– Why are they different?
• Flow velocity
• Bed roughness
• Type of fluid
 Geologically Significant
Fluid Flow Types (Processes)
• Laminar Flows:
– straight or boundary parallel flow lines
• Turbulent flows:
– constantly changing flow lines. Net mass transport in the flow
direction
 Flow: fight between inertial and
viscous forces
• Inertial F
– Object in motion tends to remain in motion
• Slight perturbations in path can have huge effect
• Perfectly straight flow lines are rare
• Viscous F
– Object flows in a laminar fashion
– Viscosity: resistance to flow (high = molasses)
• High viscosity fluid: uses so much energy to move it’s more
efficient to resist, so flow is generally straight
• Low viscosity (air): very easy to flow, harder to resist, so flow is
turbulent
• Reynolds # (ratio inertial to viscous forces)
 Reynold’s Equation#
Re = Vlr/m dimensionless #
– V = current velocity
– l = depth of flow-diameter of pipe
– r = density
– m = viscosity
u=(r/m)- kinematic viscosity
• Fluids with low u (air) are turbulent
• Change to turbulent determined experimentally
• Low Re = laminar <500 (glaciers; some mud
flows)
• High Re = turbulent > 2000 (nearly all flow)
 Geologically Significant Fluids and Flow
Processes
Debris flow (laminated flow)
• These distinct flow mechanisms
generate sedimentary deposits with
distinct textures and structures
• The textures and structures can be
interpreted in terms of hydrodynamic
conditions during deposition
• Most Geologically significant flow
processes are Turbulent

Traction deposits
(turbulent flow)
 What else impacts Fluid Flow?
• Channels
• Water depth
• Smoothness of Channel Surfaces
• Viscous Sublayer
 1. Channel

– Greater slope = greater velocity

– Higher velocity = greater lift force
• More erosive
– Higher velocity = greater inertial forces
• Higher numerator = higher Re
• More turbulent
 2. Water Depth
• Water flowing over the bottom creates shear stress
(retards flow; exerted // to surface)

– Shear stress: highest AT surface, decreases up

– Velocity: lowest AT surface, increases up

– Boundary Layer: depth over which friction creates a

velocity gradient
• Shallow water: Entire flow can fall within this interval
• Deep water: Only flow within B.L. is retarded
– Consider velocity in broad shallow stream vs deep
river
 2. Water Depth
• Turbulence
– Moves higher velocity particles closer to
stream bed/ channel sides
• Increases drag and lift, thus erosion

– Flow applies to stream channel walls (not

just bed)
 3. Smoothness
• Add obstructions
– decrease velocity around object (friction)
– Influence turbulence
• May focus higher velocity flow on channel sides or
bottom
• May get increased local erosion, with decreased
overall velocity
 4. Viscous Sublayer
• At the surface, there is a molecular attraction
that causes flow to slow down
– Thin layer of high effective viscosity
• Reduce flow velocity
• May even see laminar flow in the sublayer
• Result? Protective “coating” for fine grains on
bottom
– Smallest grains are within the layer
– (larger grains can poke up through it, causing
turbulence and scour of larger particles)
 Flow/Grain Interaction:
Particle Entrainment and Transport
• Forces acting on particles during fluid flow
– Inertial forces, FI, inducing
grain immobility
FI = gravity + friction + electrostatics

– Forces, Fm, inducing grain mobility

Fm= fluid drag force + Bernoulli force
+ buoyancy
 Deposition
• Occurs when system can no longer support
grain
• Particle Settling
– Particles settle due to interaction of upwardly directed
forces (bouyancy of fluid and drag) and downwardly
directed forces (gravity).
• Generally, coarsest grains settle out first
– Stokes Law quantifies settling velocity
– Turbulence plays a large role in keeping grains aloft
 Particle Settling
Forces opposing entrainment and transport

• VS = [(ρg - ρf)g/18 m]d2

– VS = settling velocity
– ρg = grain density
– ρf = fluid density
– m = fluid viscosity
– d = grain diameter

Stoke’s “law” of settling

 Theory vs Application
• Increase velocity, increase turbulence and
entrainment

– Material plays a role

– Hjülstrom’s curve
• Empirical measure of minimum Velocity required to
move particles of different sizes
 Hjülstrom’s Curve
• EMPIRICAL
– Series of grain sizes in straight sided channel
– Increased velocity until grains moved
• Threshold velocity (min. V) to entrain
particles
– Transition zone (specifics like packing)

– Intuitive except for clays

• Cohesion (consolidated fines) - rip-up clast
• Electrostatic attraction (unconsolidated fines)
• Viscous sublayer
 Critical Threshold for Particle Entrainment
Fm > Fi
• Hjulstrom Diagram
– Empirical relationship between grain size (quartz grains) and current velocity
(standard temperature, clear water)
– Defines critical flow velocity threshold for entrainment

– As grain size increases

entrainment velocity
increases (sand size and >
particles)
– For clay size particles
electrostatics requires
increased flow velocity for
entrainment
– (Gray area is experimental
variation)
 Grains in Motion (Transport)
• Once the object is set in motion, it will stay in
motion
• Transport paths
– Traction (grains rolling or sliding across bottom)
– Saltation (grains hop/ bounce along bottom)
– Bedload (combined traction and saltation)
– Suspended load (grains carried without settling)
• upward forces > downward, particles uplifted stay aloft through
turbulent eddies
• Clays and silts usually; can be larger, e.g., sands in floods
– Washload: fine grains (clays) in continuous suspension
derived from river bank or upstream
• Grains can shift pathway depending on conditions
 Transport Modes and Particle Entrainment
• With a grain at rest, as flow velocity increases
Fm > Fi ; initiates particle motion
• Grain Suspension (for small particle sizes, fine silt; <0.01mm)
– When Fm > Fi
• U (flow velocity) >>> VS (settling velocity)
– Constant grain Suspension at relatively low U (flow velocity)
– Wash load Transport Mode
 Transport Modes and Particle Entrainment
• With a grain at rest, as flow velocity increases
Fm > Fi ; initiates particle motion
• Grain Saltation : for larger grains (sand size and larger)
– When Fm > Fi
• U > VS but through time/space U < VS
– Intermittent Suspension
– Bedload Transport Mode
 Transport Modes and Particle Entrainment
• With a grain at rest, as flow velocity increases
Fm < Fi , but fluid drag causes grain rolling
• Grain Traction : for large grains (typically pebble size and larger)
– Normal surface (water) currents have too low a U for grain entrainment
– Bedload Transport Mode
 Velocity/Particle Size Fields and Entrainment,
Transport Mode, and Deposition Model
• Entrainment/Transportation
– Suspension
– Saltation
– Traction
• Settling/Deposition
 Depositional structures indicate flow
regime of formation
• Traction Currents
– Air and Water
• Bed is never perfectly flat
– Slight irregularies cause flow to lift off bottom slightly
– Leads to pocket of lower velocity where sediments
pushed along bottom can accumulate
– Bump creates turbulence, advances process
– Bedform height and wavelength controlled by:
• Current velocity
• Grain Size
• Water depth
 Theoretical Basis for Hydrodynamic
Interpretation of Sedimentary Facies
• Beds defined by
– Surfaces (scour, non-deposition) and/or
– Variation in Texture, Grain Size, and/or Composition
For example:
• Vertical accretion bedding (suspension settling)
– Occurs where long lived quiet water exists
• Internal bedding structures (cross bedding)
– defined by alternating erosion and deposition due to
spatial/temporal variation in flow conditions
• Graded bedding
– in which gradual decrease in fluid flow velocity results in
sequential accumulation of finer-grained sedimentary
particles through time
Grain Size and Water Depth-Bedform
• Grain size impacts bedform formation
– coarse grains, no ripples are formed
– fines (clays), no dunes form

• Water depth affects bedform

– Increase w.d., increase velocity at which change
from low to upper flow regime occurs
 Pembentukan Bedform
Transportasi butiran di atas lapisan berbutir lepas
menghasilkan pola geometri pada permukaan lapisan
yg disebut bedform yg akan membentuk struktur
sedimen bila bermigrasi.

● Jenis Bedform :
- Ripple
- Megaripple atau Dune (amplitudo > 6 cm,
panjang gelombang > 60 cm)
- Plane bed
- Antidune
Types of Bedform
 Konsep Rezim Aliran
Pembentukan bedform berhubungan dengan
kekuatan aliran.

Rezim Aliran (Friedman & Sanders, 1978) :

Hubungan antara berbagai faktor yg meliputi
aliran air, bentuk dr interface air dengan
sedimen, mode transport, proses pengham –
buran energi dr arus serta hubungan fase
antara kenampakan morfologi pd interface
air/sedimen dg permukaan air.
Simons & Richardson (1986) membagi
menjadi 2 Rezim Aliran
1. Rezim Aliran Bawah
- Froude Number < 1
- Di bagian bawah terbentuk ripple
- Partikel-partikel sedimen tertransport secara intermitten dan
konsentrasi sedimen yang ditransport rendah
- Transport terjadi krn pergerakan traction carpet ke arah atas bagian
belakang ripple dan longsoran partikel menuruni bagian fore slope yang
curam sehingga terjadi migrasi ke arah downcurrent
- Sedimen terpilah ke arah downcurrent
- Peningkatan kekuatan aliran menyebabkan perkembangan ripple
menjadi megaripple (dune)
- Pada fase transisional gerakan sedimen menjadi kontinyu, dune tercuci
Process in Bedform
2. Rezim Aliran Atas
- Froude Number > 1
- Di bagian bawah dicirikan oleh plane bed
dengan permukaan rata paralel dg permukaan
air
- Sortasi sedimen ke arah downcurrent tidak
terjadi
- Di bagian atas berkembang antidune
- Pada fase energi tertinggi berkembang
chutes & pools
Faktor Yang Mengontrol Rezim Aliran
1. Ukuran Butir
Pada pasir dg ukuran butir < 0.2 mm, tidak
akan bisa terbentuk dune. Dengan adanya
peningkatan kecepatan aliran, ripple lang-
sung berubah menjadi plane bed.
Pada pasir dg ukuran butir > 0.8 mm, tdk
akan terbentuk ripple. Pada saat sedimen
pertama kali bergerak, yg terbentuk lower
plane bed.
 Bed Response to Steady-state,
Unidirectional, Water Flow
• Consider Variation in Grain Size & Flow Velocity
– for sand <~0.2mm: No Dunes
– for sand ~0.2 to 0.8mm Idealized Flow Regime Sequence of Bed forms
– for sand > 0.8: No ripples nor lower plane bed
2. Kedalaman
Pada tempat yg sangat dangkal dune (mega
ripple tdk terbentuk krn tdk ada cukup
ruang utk pembentukannya.

3. Kecepatan
 Flow Regime and
Sedimentary Structures

An Introduction To
Physical Processes of Sedimentation
 Sedimentary Structures
• Sedimentary structures occur at very
different scales, from less than a mm (thin
section) to 100s–1000s of meters (large
outcrops); most attention is traditionally
focused on the bedform-scale
• Microforms (e.g., ripples)
• Mesoforms (e.g., dunes)
• Macroforms (e.g., bars)
 Sedimentary structures
• Laminae and beds are the basic sedimentary
units that produce stratification; the transition
between the two is arbitrarily set at 10 mm
• Normal grading is an upward decreasing grain
size within a single lamina or bed (associated
with a decrease in flow velocity), as opposed to
reverse grading
• Fining-upward successions and
coarsening-upward successions are the
products of vertically stacked individual beds
 Sedimentary Structures
Cross stratification

• Cross lamination (small-scale cross stratification) is

produced by ripples
• Cross bedding (large-scale cross stratification) is
produced by dunes
• Cross-stratified deposits can only be preserved when a
bedform is not entirely eroded by the subsequent
bedform (i.e., sediment input > sediment output)
• Straight-crested bedforms lead to planar cross
stratification; sinuous or linguoid bedforms produce
trough cross stratification
 Bed Response to Water (Fluid) Flow
• Common bed forms (shape of the unconsolidated bed) due to
fluid flow in
– Unidirectional (one direction) flow
• Flow transverse, asymmetric bed forms
– 2D&3D ripples and dunes
– Bi-directional (oscillatory)
• Straight crested symmetric ripples
– Combined Flow
• Hummocks and swales
Types of Bedform
 Bed Response to Steady-state,
Unidirectional, Water Flow
• Lower Flow Regime
– No Movement: flow velocity below critical entrainment velocity
– Ripples: straight crested (2d) to sinuous and linguoid crested (3d)
ripples (< ~1mλ) with increasing flow velocity
– Dunes: (2d) sand waves with straight crests to (3d) dunes (>~1.5mλ)
with sinuous crests and troughs
 Bed Response to Steady-state,
Unidirectional, Water Flow
• Lower Flow Regime
– No Movement: flow velocity
below critical entrainment
velocity
– Ripples: straight crested (2d) to
sinuous and linguoid crested (3d)
ripples (< ~1m) with increasing
flow velocity
– Dunes: (2d) sand waves with
straight crests to (3d) dunes
(>~1.5m) with sinuous crests and
troughs
Process in Bedform
 Dynamics of Flow Transverse
Sedimentary Structures
• Flow separation and planar vs. tangential
fore sets
– Aggradation (lateral and vertical) and Erosion in
space and time
• Due to flow velocity variation
• Capacity (how much sediment in transport) variation
• Competence (largest size particle in transport)
variation
– Angle of climb and the extent of bed form
preservation (erosion vs. aggradation-dominated
bedding surface)
 Sedimentary Structures

Cross stratification

• The angle of climb of cross-stratified deposits increases

with deposition rate, resulting in ‘climbing ripple cross
lamination’
• Antidunes form cross strata that dip upstream, but these
are not commonly preserved

• A single unit of cross-stratified material is known as a

set; a succession of sets forms a co-set
 Bed Response to Steady-state,
Unidirectional, Water Flow
• Upper Flow Regime
– Flat Beds: particles move continuously with no relief on the bed surface
– Antidunes: low relief bed forms with constant grain motion; bed form
moves up- or down-current (laminations dip upstream)
 Sedimentary structures
Planar stratification

• Planar lamination (or planar bedding) is formed

under both lower-stage and upper-stage flow
conditions
• Planar stratification can easily be confused with
planar cross stratification, depending on the
orientation of a section (strike sections!)
 Bed Response to Steady-state,
Unidirectional, Water Flow
• Consider Variation in Grain Size & Flow Velocity
– for sand <~0.2mm: No Dunes
– for sand ~0.2 to 0.8mm Idealized Flow Regime Sequence of Bed forms
– for sand > 0.8: No ripples nor lower plane bed
Bedform, Grain Size and Velocity
Flow regime Concept (summary)
Application of Flow Regime Concept to
Other Flow Types
 Sedimentary Structures
• Cross stratification produced by wave ripples can be distinguished
from current ripples by their symmetry and by laminae dipping in
two directions
• Hummocky cross stratification (HCS) forms during storm events
with combined wave and current activity in shallow seas (below the
fair-weather wave base), and is the result of aggradation of mounds
and swales

• Heterolithic stratification is characterized by alternating sand

and mud laminae or beds
• Flaser bedding is dominated by sand with isolated, thin mud drapes
• Lenticular bedding is mud-dominated with isolated ripples