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 OUTLINE
 Site Features
 Site Preparation
 Setting out

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 Construction site work includes clearing, grading, and

preparing the site for built features like roads, utilities,
buildings, parking lots, and the site drainage system.
 Initial clearing and grading work on a site requires
attention to a fairly common set of general goals
 Planning the clearing, grubbing, and site preparation
work is necessary, especially for larger sites.
 Written plans even very basic one help to ensure that
everyone understands where the active work zones
are,various activity phases, and the schedule
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 Physical features: these are permanent objects or

features existing with in the site or adjoining sites which
are used for referencing or identification of the site.
 Ex. Existing buildings, trees, roads, fences, etc.
 Elevations: these are the different heights on the
surface of the site in relation to a standard reference
point known as the bench mark (BM) Locations which
have equal elevations are joined together using contour
lines.
 These lines help to define the topography of the land
within a site.
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 Site orientation: these refers to a system of

defining the site in terms of its direction to the north,
south, east and west.
 Orientation is important in planning the building
area to make into consideration such factors as the
direction of rain, wind and sun within the site.

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 Minimize site disturbance to preserve and maintain

existing vegetative cover.
 Limit the number of access points to the site to
control off-site mud tracking
 Phase and sequence construction activities by
dividing the project into logical work zones

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 Locate temporary and permanent soil disposal

areas, haul roads, and construction staging areas to
minimize erosion, sediment transport, and
disturbance to existing vegetation

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 Operations that remove vegetation such as clearing

and grubbing and reshape the surface of the land
through excavation or placement of fill material.


 Land grading serves to construct designed site

drainage features, achieve site grades necessary
for construction of roads, buildings, parking lots,
and other site features.
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 :
To build up the proposed building at the exact
place/spot and also as a guide for excavation
and building construction.

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 The main aim of setting out is to ensure that the

various elements of the scheme are positioned
correctly in all three dimensions.

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 In order that the design of the scheme can be

correctly fixed in position, it is necessary to establish points
on the site which the E, N coordinates are known.
 These are horizontal control points and, once they have been
located they can be used with a positioning technique to set out
E, N coordinates of the design points.
 Two factors need to be taken into account when establishing
horizontal control points.
 The control points should be located throughout the site in order
that all the design points can be fixed from at least two or three
of them so that the work can be independently checked.
 The design points must be set out to the accuracy stated in the
specifications

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 The accuracy must be obtained throughout the whole network

and this can be achieved by establishing different levels of
control based on one of the fundamental tenets of surveying:
working from the
 In practice, this normally involves starting with a small number
of very accurately measured control points (known as first level
or primary control) which enclose the area in question and then
using these to establish second level or secondary control
points near the site.
 When establishing the control network care needs to be taken
that the tolerances specified are met.

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 An example if working from the whole to the part

using two different levels of control are shown in the
next diagram. In this, the first level of control is
provided by a traverse which is run through the site
in question to provide a number of well positioned
primary control points.
 These in turn are used to establish a second level of
control, in this case secondary site points at each of
a series of baselines which define important
elements of the scheme.

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 Horizontal control points should be located as near

as possible to the site in open positions for ease of
working, but well away from the construction area
and traffic routes to avoid them being disturbed.
 The construction and protection of control points is
very important.
 Wooden pegs are often used for non-permanent
stations.
 For permanent control points it is recommended that
they be constructed with concrete – as shown below.
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 A baseline is a line running between two points of a

known position. Any baselines required to set out a
project should be specified on the setting out plan
by the designer and included in the contract.
 Baselines can take many forms: they can be simply
two specified points joined, they can run between
two buildings, they can mark the boundary with an
existing building/development or they can mark the
centre line for a new road.

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 Baselines can be used in a number of different

ways:
 Where a baseline is specified to run between two
points then once the points have been established
on site, the design points can be set out from the
baseline by offsetting using tapes (as seen below).

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 A design point D is to be set out at right angles to a

baseline AB from point C which lies at a distance y
from point A. The required offset distance from C to
D is x. Distances x and y will be given by the designer
and will usually be horizontal distances.
 Primary site control points, such as traverse stations
E & F in the figure below can be use to establish a
baseline AB by angle and distance l values.

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 Subsidiary offset lines can then be set off at right

angles from each end of the baseline to fix two corners
R and S of building Z.
 Once R and S have been pegged out, the horizontal
length of RS is measured and checked against its
designed value. If it is within the required tolerance,
points R and S can be used as a baseline to set out the
corners T and U.
 Design points can be set out by taping known as
distances from each end of a baseline as shown below
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 At point A on building X is set out by taping

dimensions 1 and 2 from the baseline and point B
by taping dimensions 3 and 4.
 As before, the set out lengths of AB is then checked
against its designed value and within tolerance, it
can be used as a baseline to set out corners C and
D.

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 Outline
 Introduction
 Functions Of Foundation
 Essential Requirements Of Foundation
 Types Of Foundation
 Shallow Foundation
 Deep Foundation
 Excavation For Foundation

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 A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent

excessive settlement as well as unequal settlement.
 Unequal settlement or differential settlement may
be caused by:
 Weak sub-soils, such as made up ground,
 Shrinkable and expansive soil (such as clay),
 Frost action,

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 Movement of ground water, and uplift pressure

 Excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc.,
 Slow consolidation of saturated clays, and
 Slipping of strata on sloping sites.

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