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Hydraulic Testing
Well Hydraulics
• A water well is a hydraulic structure that is
designed and constructed to permit economic
withdrawal of water from an aquifer
• Water well construction includes:
– Selection of appropriate drilling methods
– Selection of appropriate completion materials
– Analysis and interpretation of well and aquifer
performance
Pumping Well Terminology
Q • Static Water Level [SWL]
(ho) is the equilibrium water
level before pumping
commences
• Pumping Water Level
s [PWL] (h) is the water level
during pumping
• Drawdown (s = ho - h) is the
difference between SWL and
ho PWL
h • Well Yield (Q) is the volume
of water pumped per unit
time
• Specific Capacity (Q/s) is
the yield per unit drawdown
Cone of Depression
High Kh aquifer
Low Kh aquifer Kh Kv
1.0
W(u)
0.1
0.0
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03
1/u
Theis Plot : Log(t) vs Log(s)
10.0
1.0
Drawdown (m)
0.1
0.0
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)
Theis Plot : Log(t) vs Log(s)
10.0
1.0
Drawdown (m)
0.1
s=0.17m 0.0
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)
[1,1]
Type
Curve t=51s
Theis Analysis
1. Overlay type-curve on data-curve keeping axes parallel
2. Select a point on the type-curve (any will do but [1,1] is
simplest)
3. Read off the corresponding co-ordinates on the data-curve
[td,sd]
4. For [1,1] on the type curve corresponding to [td,sd], T = Q/4psd
and S = 4Ttd/r2 = Qtd/pr2sd
5. For the example, Q = 32 L/s or 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; td = 51
s and sd = 0.17 m
6. T = (0.032)/(12.56 x 0.17) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d
7. S = (0.032 x 51)/(3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.17) = 2.1 x 10-4
Cooper-Jacob
• Cooper and Jacob (1946) pointed out that the series expansion
of the exponential integral or W(u) is:
W(u) = – g - ln(u) + u - u2 + u3 - u4 + ..…
1.1! 2.2! 3.3! 4.4!
where g is Euler’s constant (0.5772)
• For u<< 1 , say u < 0.05 the series can be truncated:
W(u) – ln(eg) - ln(u) = - ln(egu) = -ln(1.78u)
• Thus: s = ho - h = - Q ln(1.78u) = - Q ln(1.78r2S) = Q ln( 4Tt )
4pT 4pT 4Tt 4pT 1.78r2S
0.1
0.2
0.3
Drawdown (m)
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)
Cooper-Jacob Plot : Log(t) vs s
to = 84s
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Drawdown (m)
0.4
0.5
0.6
Ds =0.39 m
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
1. Fit straight-line to data (excluding early and late times if
necessary):
– at early times the Cooper-Jacob approximation may not be valid
– at late times boundaries may significantly influence drawdown
2. Determine intercept on the time axis for s=0
3. Determine drawdown increment (Ds) for one log-cycle
4. For straight-line fit, T = 2.3Q/4pDs and S = 2.25Tto/r2 =
2.3Qto/1.78pr2Ds
5. For the example, Q = 32 L/s or 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; to = 84
s and Ds = 0.39 m
6. T = (2.3 x 0.032)/(12.56 x 0.39) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d
7. S = (2.3 x 0.032 x 84)/(1.78 x 3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.39)
= 1.9 x 10-4
Theis-Cooper-Jacob Assumptions
20
Drawdown (m)
25
30
35
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
Time since pump started (s)
20
Drawdown (m)
25
30
35
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
Time since pump started (s)
20
Drawdown (m)
High Leakage
25
Low Leakage
30
35
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
Time since pump started (s)
0.5
Theis Curve
1.0 1.0
W(u,r/B)
2.0
0.1
0.0
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04
1/u
Data are fitted in a manner similar to the Theis curve. The parameter
r/B = r( {K’v / b’} / {Khb} )½ increases with the amount of leakage.
Barrier Effect : No Flow Boundary
15
20
Drawdown (m)
25
30
35
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Time since pump started (s)
1
Drawdown (m)
2
Ds = 3.8 m
3
5
1 10 100 1000
Distance (m)
Aquifer Characteristics
• For the example: t = 0.35 days and Q = 1100 m3/d
8
0
10 2
Drawdown (m)
12 6
8
14 10
16 12
14
18 16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (m)
20
0.01 0.1 1 Distance (m) 10 100 1000
Unconfined Well Correction
• The adjusted drawdown for an unconfined well is
given by:
sc = (1 - sa ) sa
2b
where b is the initial saturated thickness;
sa is the measured drawdown; and
sc is the corrected drawdown
• For example, if b = 20 m; sa = 6 m; then the corrected
drawdown sc = 0.85sa = 5.1 m
• If the drawdown is not corrected, the Jacob and Theis
analysis underestimates the true transmissivity under
saturated conditions by a factor of sc/ sa.
Causes of Well Inefficiency
• Factors contributing to well inefficiency
(excess head loss) fall into two groups:
– Design factors
• Insufficient open area of screen
• Poor distribution of open area
• Insufficient length of screen
• Improperly designed filter pack
– Construction factors
• Inadequate development, residual drilling fluids
• Improper placement of screen relative to aquifer interval
Radius of Influence
• The radius of influence of a well can be determined
from a distance-drawdown plot.
• For all practical purposes, a useful comparative index
is the intercept of the distance-drawdown graph on
the distance axis.
• Radius of influence can be used as a guide for well
spacing to avoid interference.
• Since radius of influence depends on the balance
between aquifer recharge and well discharge, the
radius may vary from year to year.
• For unconfined wells in productive aquifers, the
radius of influence is typically a few hundred metres.
• For confined wells may have a radius of influence
extending several kilometres.
Determining ro
ro = 126 m ro = 4.1 km
0
1 Unconfined Well
2
3
Drawdown (m)
Confined Well
4
0
5 2
4
6
Drawdown (m)
6
7 8
10
8 12
14
9 16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (m)
10
1 10 100 1000 10000
Distance (m)
Unconfined Aquifers
• Most analytical solutions assume isotropic,
homogeneous, confined aquifers or assume
drawdowns are small for the unconfined case.
• There are three distinct parts to the time drawdown
curve in an unconfined aquifer:
– early time response follows Theis equation with the confined
“elastic” storage corresponding to storativity (bSs)
– intermediate times respond as a leaky aquifer with vertical
flow in the vicinity of the pumped well with storage release
controlled by the aquifer Kh/Kv ratio
– late time response follows Theis equation with gravity
drainage providing storage corresponding to the specific
yield (Sy)
Delayed-Yield Response
• Unconfined response
is complex with theory
uA uB developed by
h Boulton, Dagan,
Steltsova, Rushton
and Neuman.
0.25
1.0 1.0
W(uA,uB,h)
4.0
0.1
0.0
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
1/u
2
Drawdown (m)
4
Drawdown 10 m
6
Recovery 10 m
8 Pumping
Stopped
10
12
-6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time (hrs)
2.00
6.00
Dsr = 4.6 m
8.00
10.00
12.00
1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02
Time after pumping stopped, t' (hrs)
Aquifer characteristics can be calculated from a log(time)-recovery plot but
the drawdown (s) curve for the pumping phase must be extrapolated to
estimate recovery (s - s’)
Time-Recovery Analysis
• For a constant rate of pumping (Q), the recovery any time (t’)
after pumping stops:
T= Q = -Q = Q
4pD(s - s’) - 4pDsr 4pDsr
• For the example, Dsr = 4.6 m and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
T = 1100 / (12.56 x 4.6) = 19 m2/d
• The storage coefficient can be estimated for an observation well
(r = 30 m) using:
S = 4Tto’
r2
• For the example, to’ = 0.12 and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
S = 4 x 19 x 0.12 / (24 x 30 x 30) = 4.3 x 10-4
• It is necessary to use an observation well for this calculation
because well bore storage effects render any calculation based
on rw potentially subject to huge errors.
Time-Residual Drawdown Graph
0
Residual Drawdown, s' (m)
6
Ds’ = 5.2 m
8
10
12
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03
Time ratio, t/t'
Transmissivity can be calculated from a log(time ratio)-residual drawdown
(s’) graph by determining the gradient. For such cases, the x-axis is log(t/t’)
and thus is a ratio.
Time-Residual Drawdown Analysis
• For a constant rate of pumping (Q), the recovery any time (t’)
after pumping stops:
T= Q
4pDs’
• For the example, Dsr = 5.2 m and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
T = 1100 / (12.56 x 5.2) = 17 m2/d
• Notice that the graph plots t/t’ so the points on the LHS
represent long recovery times and those on the RHS short
recovery times.
• The storage coefficient cannot be estimated for the residual
drawdown plot because the intercept t / t’ 1 as t’ .
• This more obvious, remembering t’ = t - tr where tr is the elapsed
pumping time before recovery starts.
Residual Drawdown for Real Aquifers
0.00
Residual Drawdown, s' (m)
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02
Time ratio, t/t'
• Theoretical intercept is 1
• >> 1 indicates a recharge effect
• >1 may indicate greater S for pumping than recovery ?consolidation
• < 1 indicates incomplete recovery of initial head - finite aquifer volume
• << 1 indicates incomplete recovery of initial head - small aquifer volume
DST
• The drill stem test, used widely in petroleum
Drill engineering, is a recovery test.
Stem • Packers are used to isolate the HSU of
interest which has been flowing for some
Valve time.
• Initially the bypass valve is open allowing free
Packer circulation.
• When the bypass valve is closed, the
Perforated
formation pressure is “shut-in” and begins to
Section
recover towards the static value.
Packer • The Horner plot is a direct analogue of the
residual drawdown plot.
Gauge
DST Analysis
• Recall that the final form of the recovery equation is:
ho - h = s’ = 2.3Q log(t)
4pT t’
• For a DST, the pressure (rather than head) is measured
po - p = 2.3Qm log(t)
4pkb t’
• Remembering that p = gh,T = Kb and K = kg/m
• The Horner-plot has an
po
intercept po when t / t’ = 1
• This intercept is taken to be
p (kPa)
r r r r
General Solution
The general solution for
ri adding image wells to a real
rp pumping well can be written:
s = sp si = Q [W(u) W(ui)]
4pT
r r where up = rp2S and ui = ri2S
4Tt 4Tt
and rp,ri are the distances from
the pumping and image wells
respectively.
r2 r2
r1 r1
Parallel Boundaries
• A parallel recharge boundary and a barrier boundary (or any
pattern with parallel boundaries) requires an infinite array of
image wells.
r1 r2
Boundary Location
• For an observation well at distance r1,
s
measure off the same drawdown (s),
t1 before and after the “dog leg” on a
log(time) vs. drawdown plot.
s • Find the times t1 and t2.
t2 • Assuming that the “dog leg” is created
by an image well at distance r2 , if the
drawdowns are identical then W(u1) =
W(u2) so u1 = u2.
• Thus: r12S/4Tt1 = r22S/4Tt2
So r12t2 = r22t1 and r2 = r1(t2 / t1)½
• The distance r2 the radial distance from
the observation point to the boundary.
• Repeating for additional observation
wells may help locate the boundary.
Pumping Wells
• The drawdown observed in a pumping well has two
component parts:
– aquifer loss
• drawdown due to laminar flow in the aquifer
– well loss
• drawdown due to turbulent flow in the
immediate vicinity of the well through the
screen and/or gravel pack
• Well loss is usually assumed to be proportional to the
square of the pumping rate:
sw = CQ2
Well Efficiency
• The total drawdown at a pumping well is given by:
st = s + sw = Q W(u) + CQ2 = BQ + CQ2
4pT
• The ratio of the aquifer loss and total drawdown (s/st) is known
as the well efficiency.
s= W(u) = B .
st W(u) + 4pTCQ B + CQ
• Mogg (1968) defines well efficiency at a fixed time (t = 24 hrs).
Thus, writing W(u) as the Cooper-Jacob approximation gives:
s= 1 = 1 .
st 1 + 4pTCQ / [ln (2.25Tt /S) - 2 ln(rw)] 1 + CQ/B(rw)
• Written in this form it is clear that well efficiency reduces with
pumping rate (Q) and increases with well radius (rw), where B is
inversely related to well radius.
• The specific capacity is given by: Q = 1 .
st B + CQ
Step-Drawdown Test
• Step-drawdown tests are tests at
s1 different pumping rates (Q)
designed to determine well
s efficiency.
2 • Normally pumping at each
Drawdown, s
a pump test.
C • For Q = 2700 m3/d and s =
33.3 m the B = 0.012 m/m3/d
• If C = 4 x 10-5, then CQ2 =
B 18.2 m
• The well efficiency is
Q (L/s) 33.3/(33.3+18.2) = 65%
Well Yield
Well yield Nom. pump dia. Opt. casing dia. Min. casing dia.
US gpm L/s m3/d in mm in mm in mm
< 100 <6.4 550 4 100 6 150 5 130
< 170 <11 950 5 130 8 200 6 150
< 350 <22 1900 6 150 10 250 8 200
< 700 <44 3800 8 200 12 300 10 250
< 1000 <64 5500 10 250 14 360 12 300
< 1800 <110 9800 12 300 16 410 14 360
< 3000 <190 16000 14 360 20 510 16 410
< 3800 <240 21000 16 410 24 610 20 510
< 6000 <380 33000 20 510 30 760 24 610