Presented By: Madam Shehnaz Qayyum Definition of Counselling
• According to Halm and Mchean (1955) "Counselling is a one
to one relationship between an individual troubled by problems with which he cannot cope alone and a professional worker whose training and experience have qualified him to help others reach solutions to various types of personal difficulties". • Smith (1955) defines "Counselling is a process in which the counsellor assists the counselling to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice plan or adjustments which he needs to make" • According to Stefflre (1970) "Counselling is a learning- teaching process". Counselling & Related Fields
Counselling and Psychotherapy
Guidance and Counseling Instruction and counseling. Advice and counseling Principles of Counselling Principles of Counselling
Counselling is based on n number of principles. These principles are:
1. Counselling is a process. It is necessary for the counsellor to understand that counselling is a process and a slow process. Failure to understand this will result in annoyance and disappointment. 2. Counselling is for all. Especially in the school situation counselling is mean for all the students and not only for those who are facing problems or other exceptional students. 3. Counselling is based on certain fundamental assumptions. a) Every individual in this world is capable of taking responsibilities for him/herself. b) Every individual has a right to choose his/her own path, based on the principles of democracy. 4. Counsellor does not deprive the right of self-choice but simply facilitate choice. The counsellor should give due respect to the individual and accept him/herself as he/she is. 5. Counselling is not advice giving. 6. Counselling is not thinking for the client, but thinking with the client. Counselling is for enabling the client to do judicious thinking. 7. Counselling is not problem solving. The counsellor simply assists the person to find solution on his/her own. 8. Counselling is not interviewing but conversing with the client in order to help him/her to develop self-understanding, 9. The counsellor should determine individual differences and provide for them. 10. The counsellor has to prepare the client to open to criticism including self-criticism. 11. The counsellor acts as a facilitator or catalyst only. He creates an atmosphere which is permissive and non-threatening, through his warm and accepting relationship with the client Goals of Counselling Goals of Counselling
Achievement of positive mental health
Problem Resolution Counselling for decision making Improving personal effectiveness Help change Behavioral Modification Major approaches or types of Counselling Types of Counselling
There are three major approaches to counselling given
as: The directive approach The non-directive approach and The eclectic approach. The Directive Appraoch
This approach envisages a more active role for the counsellor.
The counsellor employs varying degrees of direction to help the counselee to reach sound solutions. Also, through his own specialised knowledge and experience in scientific diagnosis and interpretation of data, counselees are helped to reach earlier solutions for their problems. According to Frederick Thorne, the proponent of this approach, the need for direction by the counsellor is inversely proportional to the individual counselee's potentialities for self-regulation. Counselling Steps: Directive counselling involves six stages. They are as follows: 1) Analysis 2) Synthesis 3) Diagnosis 4) Prognosis 5) Counselling The non-Directive Approach
In this approach, the counsellor provides an atmosphere in which
the client can fully explore his/her own thoughts and feelings freely without any fear or pressure. This by making the counselee understands his/her potentialities the counsellor acts as a catalytic agent. Here tile source of data is the client him/herself and the responsibility for change rests with the counselee rather than the counsellor. The counsellor should not be as passive as trying to keep out client’s way nor should be as active as to shift the focus from client to counsellor. The Elective Approach
Here the counsellor bases his/her counselling on concepts taken
from various available viewpoints. He/she owes on specific theoretical allegiance. Instead, incorporates those procedures and techniques which he/she believes to be most effective in the case of that particular counselee, without any prejudice or bias to any particular school of thought.
According to Thorne, eclecticism is the most practicable and apt
approach to counselling. Because no two people are able and as such no single theory of personality could explain the various behavioural pattern exhibited by individuals. So also each problem is unique in its content and intensity and a technique or approach suitable in one case need not even he effective in the second case. Counselling process The process of counselling passes through certain stages which can be broadly classified as follows: 1) Initial stage: Client self exploration First interview Initial counselling sessions 2) Middle stage: Deeper exploration and analysis 3) Final stage: Implementation of goals through action. 4) Termination Initial stage: Client self-exploration: In this stage the clients are encouraged in self-exploration and their concern is clarified. General counselling goals are set and the working alliance is established. Also by gathering information and observing the client, the counsellor arrive at some tentative hypothesis regarding the nature and complexity of the problem. To help these decisions assessment devices like psychological tests, questionnaires, inventories, etc. are widely used. The initial stage is sub-divided into : (a) first interview and (b) initial counselling sessions. Middle stage :Deeper exploration and analysis: This stage is marked by a shift of counsellor attention from client’s external problem to his internal problems from primarily cognitive level to emotional level. Thus, the client’s disclose his feelings increasingly. Counsellors explore more intensively with clients, confronts him with contradictions, stronger interpretations of client's comments, etc. At this point some counsellors use more tests to further explore into the clients intellectual or personality functioning. Thus as the clients move to increased disclosure and awareness, counsellors and clients begin to develop emotional interactions like transference, counter transference, resistance, etc. Though rooted in psychoanalysis experts are of the opinion that these are universal phenomena in all counselling relationships. Final stage: Implementation of goals through action At this stage, clients would have started acting upon reality. They become more self aware, assertive and genuine and start generalising these to everyday life. This is a working through phase in which understanding is put into constructive action. emphasis is on making changes in behaviour, attitudes and skills, specified as goals in the initial stages. For those who delay decision-making, specific strategies like role playing behaviour, rehearsal, assertiveness training, etc. are used. Termination: If the goals as set in the beginning are met termination follows. If the counsellor believes the problem has been solved, he may raise the issue directly. Or if the client is sure to have recovered he may bring up the idea. If the counsellor agrees, termination proceeds. However, the counsellor must be alert to the possibility that effort to termination arise due to lack of progress. Also he should be aware that clients signalling termination is a sign of resistance and should be handled carefully. Skills of Counselling Several skills need to be brought into a one-to-one counselling session. These include: 1. attitudinal skills; 2. listening skills; 3. verbal communication skills; and 4. giving leads. 1. Attitudes
There is probably nothing which has a greater impact on the
outcome of a counselling session than the helper's attitude. Attitudes can be positive or reactive. Attitudes are included in this unit on skills because good attitudes can be learned and practised. They include the following: a) Respect b) Guidance/congruence c) Unconditional positive regard d) Empathy e) Self-disclosure f) Confrontation 2. Listening
Effective listening is more complicated than it seems, since it
involves a counsellors own level of self-awareness, as well as his/her awareness of the spoken and unspoken cues of the other person. Furthermore, a teacher needs to be able to respond to the counselee in such a way that he/she feels understood. Being a good listener entails receiving and sending appropriate messages. Sometimes how counselees communicate is much more revealing that what they actually say, which may be more concealing than revealing 3. Verbal Communication
The use of words in counselling is a skill which, like any other
skill, requires practice to master. Verbal communication takes place first in the literal or content phase. If inappropriate vocabulary is used, rapport and understanding will be hindered. When this happens, miscommunication occurs. Even common words can be misunderstood due to the multiple meanings they carry. There are five more levels of communication. Each of these levels is valuable in different contexts. The five levels of communication are:
a) Cliches; b) facts; c) beliefs; d) emotions; and e) intimacy 4. Giving Leads
Leads may be defined as statements that counsellors use in
communication with the clients. Leads have been classified into categories of techniques, namely: 1) Restatement of content 2) Questioning 3) Reflection of feeling 4) Reassurance 5) Interpretation Theories of Counselling Three theories of counselling are of prime importance given as: 1. Client-Centred or Person-Centred Theory 2. Rational-Emotive Theory 3. Behavioural Counselling 1. Client centered Theory
The core of the theory is that humans have an inherent self
actualizing tendency, a movement towards developing capacities in ways which serve to maintain and enhance the individual. By following this innate drive, people can meet their needs, develop a view of themselves, and interact in society in a beneficial way. This may not occur without distress or ‘growing pains’, but theoretically, if humans can be helped to follow their nature, they will move towards a state of relative happiness, contentment, and general psychological adjustment (Patterson, 1980) 1. Client centered Theory
Problems in the personality development process arise when
significant people in our lives, (for example, parents, teachers, peers), place a condition of worth upon us, rather than accept us unconditionally. The key to healthy personality development and self-generated rehabilitation of psychological problems, lies in the ‘necessary and sufficient conditions of personality change’ (Rogers, 1957). 1. Client centered Theory
These conditions consist in the counsellor expressing, and the
client perceiving, unconditional positive regard, empathetic understanding, and congruence, or honesty. When clients interact with counsellors who behave in this manner, they begin to share their experience; the self-actualization tendency is activated; they question and cast off conditions of worth, and move towards unconditional acceptance and respect. 2. Rational Emotive Theory
Rational-emotive theory was developed by Albert Ellis, a clinical
psychologist. Underlying the practice of rational-emotive theory and its applications to counselling, is a set of theoretical hypotheses about the emotional-behavioural functioning of humans and how it can be changed (Ellis, 1977). At the centre of these hypotheses is the concept that events do not force people to have emotional behavioural reactions. It is rather their interpretation or thoughts about events that precipitate emotion and behaviour. 2. Rational Emotive Theory
Ellis theorizes that humans have the capacity to interpret reality
in a clear, logical and objective fashion, and avoid unnecessary emotional-behavioural upsets, But also says that humans are predisposed to irrational interpretations. They are susceptible to crooked thinking, draw illogical conclusions which are not objective, and are cognitive distortions of reality. 2. Rational Emotive Theory
An irrational interpretation of reality, such as the foregoing, usually
has two or three standard characteristics (Ellis, 1979): It demands something unrealistic of the world, other people, or yourself; It exaggerates the awfulness of something you dislike; It concludes that you cannot tolerate the thing you dislike; and It condemns the world, other people, or yourself. For example, an irrational interpretation occurs when (a) parents scold a child because of spilt milk; (b) the child concludes ‘I am a bad and inept person’ and consequently (c) feels threatened and hurt and withdraws from the scene.