UNIT-

1
LINEAR WAVE SHAPING
 BASICS
Analog Quantities
Most natural quantities that we see are analog and vary
continuously. Analog systems can generally handle higher
power than digital systems
Temperature
(F)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70

Time of day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Digital systems can p r ocess, store, an d transmit data

A .M . P. M .

more
efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each
point
 Analog and Digital
Systems
Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more
efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each
point
CDdrive

10110011101 Digital-to- Linear

Digital data analog Analog amplifier
converter reproduction
ofmusic Speaker
audio signal
Soun
d
waves
 Contd..
Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which
are represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH
and LOW. The voltages represent numbers in the binary
system
In binary, a single number is called a bit (for binary digit). A
voltage is HIGH
bit can have or LOW.
the value of either a 0 orVH(max
a 1, depending on if
the HIGH

VH(min
INVALID

VL(max LOW

VL(min)
 Digital Signals
Digital waveforms change between the LOW and HIGH
levels. A positive going pulse is one that goes from anormally
LOW logic level to a HIGH level and then back again.
Digital waveforms are made up of a series of pulses

HIGH HIGH

Rising or Falling or Falling or Rising or

leading trailing leading trailing
edge edge edge edge
LO LO
t0 t1 t0 t1
W W
(a) Positivegoing (b)Negativegoing pulse
pulse
 Pulse Definitions

Actual pulses are not ideal but are described by the

rise time, fall time, amplitude, and other
characteristics.
Overshoot
Ringing

Droop
Amplitude 90% tW
50%
Pulse
width
10%
Ringing

Baseline Undershoot
tr tf
Risetime Fall
time
 Periodic Pulse Waveforms

Periodic pulse waveforms are composed of pulses

that repeats in a fixed interval called the period.
The frequency is the rate it repeats and is measured
in hertz. The clock is a basic timing signal that is
an example of a periodic wave.

1
T z
f

What is the period of a repetitive wave if f = 3.2 GHz?

 Pulse Definitions
In addition to frequency and period, repetitive pulse
waveforms are described by the amplitude (A), pulse
width (tW) and duty cycle. Duty cycle is the ratio of tW to
T.
Volt
s

Pulse
width
Amplitude
(tW)
Tim
Period, e
T
 Wave Shaping

Definition: It is the process of changing the

shape of input signal with linear / non-linear
circuits.
Types:
i. Linear Wave Shaping
ii. Non-linear Wave Shaping
 Linear Wave Shaping
Definition: The process where by the form of a
non-sinusoidal signal is changed by transmission
through a linear network is called Linear Wave
Shaping.
Types:
i. High Pass RC Circuit.
ii. Low Pass RC Circuit.
 Non-sinusoidal wave forms

1) Step
2) Pulse
3) Square wave
4) Ramp
5) Exponential wave
forms.
Step Waveform
A step voltage is one which maintains the value zero for all times t<0
and maintains the value V for all times t>0.
Vi
Vi=0
V t<0
i

V =V t>0

t
t=0

Pulse
The pulse amplitude is V and the pulse duration is
Vi
tp.
V 0ttp Vi=V
Otherwise Vi=0

0 t=0 t
t=tp
Square Wave
A wave form which maintains itself at one constant level v1 for a time T1
and at other constant Level V11 for a time T2 and which is repetitive with
a period T=T1+T2 is called a square-wave.

T1 T2

Ramp
A waveform which is zero for t<0 and which increases linearly with time for t>0.
Vi
Vi =t

Vi =t ,

t>0 t
0
Exponential
The exponential waveform input is given by
where T is the time constant of the exponential
input
Vi

t
0
 High Pass RC Circuit
C
+ +

R XC 1
Vi Vo 2f
C
- -

If f=low, Xc becomes high

C act as open circuit, so the Vo=0.

If f=high, Xc becomes low

C acts as short circuit, so we get the output.

The higher frequency components in the input

signal appear at the output with less attenuation due to this
behavior the circuit is called High Pass Filter.
 High pass RC circuit for Sinusoidal input

For Sinusoidal input, the output increases in

amplitude with increasing frequency.
C
Vo= iR + +

i R
Vin Vin
i= = Vin V
R-jXC R- j
2f C _ O
_

i= Vi
n
j
R 2fRC
1-

Vin R
VO=i R= = Vi
1- j
j n
R 1- 2fR
2fR
C
C
 V 1
=
O
Vin
1+j -f1
f

VO 1
= 2 A 0.707
V in
1 + f1
f

=-tan -1-f1 = tan-

1 f1

f

VO = 1f = 1

Vi =0.707
n
1+1 2
At the frequency f = f1
 At f = f1 the gain is 0.707 or this level corresponds to a signal reduction of 3
decibels(dB).
f1 is referred to as Lower 3-dB frequency.
High pass RC circuit for Square wave input

Percentage Tilt ( 0 0 Tilt)

Tilt is defined as the decay in the amplitude of the output voltage wave due
to the input voltage maintaining constant level

V1V 1 1
P X 10
V
2 0
-T1
'
V 1 = V 1. e RC (1)
-T2
V' 2 = V2 . e R (2)
C
V '
1 - 2 V (3)
=
V (4)

V - V' = V
1 2
 A symmetrical square wave is one for which T1=T2 = & because
symmetry V1 = - V 2 of

By substituting these in above equation (3)

-T2RC -
V=V1.e V2

- T2RC+
V=V1. e V1

- T2RC
I
V=V1(1+e )

Equation (1)

II
ForRC>>T2 theequation(I)&(II)becomesas

V1 V (1+ T V T
4RC V)& 1
1
2 (1-
2 )

4RC
Thepercentage tilt P is definedby V1-V1
1

P= V
2 100
High pass RC circuit for Ramp input

V
Vi ( S ) 2
s
Laplace Transform of the circuit
R a
V0 (S) Vi (S) >
RCS
1 S 2 1 + RCS
R+
CS

a 1 1
a RC
1 S S+ 1
S+
S
RC RC

Inverse Laplace Transform on both sides

t
V0 ( t ) a RC (1 e RC
).
The response characteristic is depicted as below

t
V0 (t ) a RC (1 e ).
RC
 High pass RC circuit for exponential input

From exponential input

Let t R C
x ,n
t t
t
v i ( t ) v (1 e Rc
) (1)
dV i ( t ) v 0 ( t ) dv 0 ( t )
+ (2)
dt RC dt
From RC low pass exponential input

ex n nx
Vo(t) v
1 + e
1n 1n
We know that

t
ex n nx
VR(t) v(1e ) v
t
1 + e
1n 1n
x x
x e n n
v(1 e ) v
1 + e
1 n 1 n
 nx
e x n e
v ex v
1 n 1 n


x
x 1 n n
v
e 1 e
1 n 1 n
x
n x
> v e e
n
, n 1
n 1
x
VR (t ) Vxe , n 1
High pas RC circuit for step signal

d v i d v o 1
+ v o
since vi=v for t>0 d t d t R C
d v i d v
0
d t d t
d v o 1
+ v o 0
d t R C
( t t
v o v f ( v f v i ) e i ) / R C
At t=0,vi=v
t= ,vi=v-----steady state condition

vv )) ee t / R C
v v0 00 ((00 t RC
0

Note :Under steady state condition ,the capacitor blocks d.c and
the output is zero
High pass RC circuit for pulse input:

at t=tp
For RC>>tp

Prediction: In order to minimize the distortion the time constant

must be very large as compared to the pulse width.
Peaking: Pulses may be converted into spikes(pips) by making the
time constant quite small ad this process is called peaking.
High Pass RC circuit acts as
differentiator:-
The time constant of high pass RC circuit in very small in
comparison within the time required for the input signal to make an
appreciable change, the circuit is called a differentiator.
Under this circumstances the voltage drop across R will be very small in
comparison with the drop across C. Hence we may consider that the
total input Vi appears across C, so that the current is determined entirely
by the capacitance.
Then the current is i = C and the output signal across R is
V0 = iR
V0 = RC
hence the output is proportional to the derivative of the
input.
 Low Pass RC Circuit

1
XC 2
fC

If f=low, Xc becomes high

C act as open circuit, so we get the
output.

If f=high, Xc becomes low

C acts as short circuit, so Vo=0.

As the lower frequency signals appear at the

output, it is called as
Low pass RC circuit.
Response of low pass RC circuit for Sinusoidal
input

1
Vo CSi

Vin XC
VO = j
R+ X
C j

where
1
XC =
2f
Vin C1
VO =
R+ jC
j 1
C

V= Vin =
O
jRC+1
V
1+j2 in fRC
VO = Vi 1
1+ j ff2
n
where f 2= 2R
C
= 1
A = VO 1+ f
Vin j f2

A = 1 2 and =- tan -1
f f 2
1+ f
f2

At the frequency f = f2

VO = 1 = 1
Vi =0.707
n
1+1 2
A 0.707
 At f = f2 the gain is 0.707 or this level corresponds to a signal reduction of 3
decibels(dB).

f2 or fh is referred to as upper 3-dB frequency.

Response of low pass RC circuit for Square wave
input
Rise Time( tr):
The time required for the voltage to rise from 10 0 0to
90 0 0of the final steady value is called Rise
Time.

V
V2 V V2
V01
Vd.c.
V02

V1 V
T1 T2
 The output voltage V01 & V02 is givenby

V01 = V1 + (V1-V 1 ) .
T1
e - RC
(1)
V02 T2
= V11 + (V2-V 11 ) . e- RC

if we V01 = V2 at t=T1
set V02 = V1 at t= T1+T2 (2)
and 1
- T 1 RC
1
11 11 - T 2 RC
V21=
V =VV +(+(
V1- V ) Ve )
V2-
e

Since the average across R is zero then the d.c voltage at the output is same as that of the
input. This average value is indicated as Vd.c.
Consider a symmetrical square wave with zero average value, so that
 V 1 - e
- T 2RC

V= -T
2RC
2 1 +
e T 2RC
V e T -1
V2 =
2 2RC + 1

T
V e2x - 1
V 2 = 2 .e e2x + 1 4RC
where x=

V2 = V2tan hx
Response of low pass RC circuit for ramp input:

Vi=t
From RC circuit voltage across R with ramp input

V R a R C (1 e t / R C )
From circuit
Vo=Vc=Vi-VR

Vi=t
 v o a t a R C (1 e t / R C )
v0 a (t R C ) + a R C e t / RC
Transmission error: e t
The ratio of difference between the input and output to input at
t=T

a t (a t a R C )
et
a t

=>RC/T
==> RC/T=1/2f2T
1
e t
2 f 2 T
Response of Low pass RC circuit for step input

Apply KVL to the above circuit

1
vi (t ) R i(t ) +
C
i (t ) d t
Diff. on both sodes

dvi (t ) di (t ) 1
R + i (t )
dt dt C
 d vi (t )
0
d t
di ( t ) 1
0R + i (t )
dt C
Apply Laplace transform on both sides

0=R[SI(S)-I(0+)]+1/cI(S)

1
I (0 + ) I ( s ) S +
RC
v v1
I (0 + )
R
Where I(0+) is initial current
 I (0 + )
I (S )
1
S +
RC
v v1
> I ( S )
1
R s +
RC

And
V 0(S ) Vi (S ) I (S ) R

v v v1
Vo (S ) R
S
R S + 1
R C

Inverse laplace transform on both sides

 t / RC
V o ( t ) V (V V ) e
1

( t / ti ) RC
Vc (t ) V f (V f Vin )e
Where V-final voltage

v 1 initialvoltageacrosscapacitor
Response of low pass RC circuit for pulse input

Case 1: 0 < t < tp

A constant voltage is applied to a RC circuit, capacitor tries to
reach that value exponentially.
i) t << t p
As t p
is larger , capacitor reaches maximum value .

t > tp
------tp-

ii)

We are applying a 0 for an infinite time, as capacitor is already

charged ,so it discharges to an amount of 0 exponentially.
Low pass RC circuit acts as an
integrator
The time constant is very large in comparison with the time required for
the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called an
Integrator.
As RC>>T the voltage drop across C will be very small in comparison to the
voltage drop across R and we may consider that the total input Vi appear and
across R, then
Vi =iR

For low pass RC circuit the output voltage Vo is given by

VO = 1 i dt
C

VO =
1 d
Vi C R t
1
VO= RC Vi
dt

Advantages of Integrator over differentiator
Integrators are almost invariably preferred over differentiators in analog
computer applications for the following reasons.

The gain of the integrator decreases with frequency where as the gain of
the differentiator increases linearly with frequency. It is easier to stabilize
the former than the latter with respect to spurious oscillations.

As a result of its limited band width an integrator is less sensitive to

noise voltages than a differentiator.

If the input wave form changes very rapidly, the amplifier of a

differentiator may over load.

It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions in an integrator.

RL
Circuits
RL filter or RL
network, is an
electric circuit
composed
of resistors and
inductors
driven by a
voltage or
current source
XL = L
RL circuit:
In a RC circuit if we replace R and C by L and R respectively then we
get RL circuit .

If we replace like that the time constant of RC circuit is equal to the

time constant of RL circuit
i.e;

High pass RL circuit

 When Large time constant is required iron core inductor is used which
was physically large, expensive.

In a low pass RL circuit ,at low frequencies the reactance(XL=jwL)

is small ,so output across R is almost same as input and hence acts as
LPF.

In a high pass RL circuit, at low frequencies output across the

inductor is small and the output increases as the frequencies ,hence acts
as HPF.
Peaking circuit:

If we want to get a pulse from a square wave ,a peaking circuit

is used.
 The voltage across inductor can not change instantaneously if the
bias voltage and input of transistor are linearly operated.

i.e; inductor acts as open circuit.

In low frequency hybrid model ,the value of voltage is

RLC CIRCUIT:

A series RLC circuit as shown in fig. below

Series RLC circuit

Apply KVL to the above circuit

Apply Laplace transforms ob both sides

From the fig.

From equation (1)

Equation (3) in (2)

The characteristic function is

and the roots are

If
i.e;

then the roots are real and different, the circuit is over damped
and no oscillations in output

If i.e;

then the roots are real and equal, the circuit is critically
damped .
i.e;
If

then the roots are complex conjugate to each other, and there
will be oscillations in output.

The term is called characteristic impedance of the circuit.

STEP RESPONSE:

The input

We know that
The current response is
Case (a):-
Over damped circuit

Where

Case (b):-
critically damped circuit
Case (c):-
Over damped circuit

Where

The response graph is depicted as follows

Double differentiation:

It consists of two RC coupling networks cascaded separated by an

amplifier.
The output impedance of the amplifier is low compared to the
R2C2 such that this combination does not load amplifier.
This circuit can convert ramp voltage into a pulse .
The initial slope of the output wave is the initial slope of the
input multiplied by the gain of the amplifier.
 Attenuators:
Attenuators are the resistive networks, which are used to reduce
the amplitude of the input signal.
The simple resistive combination is shown as below

Vi Vo

Where
 If the o/p of the attenuator is feeding a stage of amplification, the
input capacitance C2 of amplifier will be stray in shunt to R2.

Using Thevenin's theorem R1 and R2 are replaced by R

If R1 and R2 are large , then the rise time also large which is
normally unacceptable.
 The attenuator compensating by R1 and C1 will be depicted by
Compensation:-

Initial voltage across C1 q

V1
C1

q
Initial voltage across C1 V2
C2
Input voltage V V1 + V 2

q q
+
c1 c 2
c + c
q 1 2

c1c 2
q
V (0 + ) c 2
0

V c + c
q 1 2

c1c 2
Vo(0+)=

At t=, steady state condition , capacitor works as short

circuit.

From fig

From initial to final values the o/p may rise or decay

exponentially with a time constant t RC
Perfect compensation is obtained when V0(0+) V0()
Ringing circuit:

A circuit which gives nearly un damped oscillations for a given

step input is called ringing circuit

A ringing circuit may be used to generate a sequence of pulses

regularly separated in time

RLC ringing circuit

Thank you