Wolaita Sodo University

College of Engineering
Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources
Engineering

Water Treatment Lecture Note

By: Ermias M. & Muse G. September, 2017

 Chapter 1 - Introduction
Some Facts
88% of diarrhoeal disease is attributed to unsafe water
supply, inadequate sanitation and hygiene.

1.8 million people die every year from diarrhoeal

diseases

90% are children under 5, mostly in developing

countries
Every 8 seconds, a child dies from drinking contaminated
water (that is 10,000 a day).

500 million people are at risk from trachoma, 146 million

are threatened by blindness and 6 million people are
visually impaired from this disease.

In 2006 in the Adami Tulu Jido Kombolcha district,

approximately 11,000 people have been affected by
diarrhea epidemic.
Water treatment is the process of removing undesirable
substances from a raw water source and make it fit for
use.

Health and aesthetics are the principal motivations for

water treatment.

Contaminated water results in outbreak of waterborne

diseases

Contaminants can include Aquatic pathogens, toxic

chemicals, heavy metals, pesticides, etc.
 Absolute treatment of water is not required but

purification.

Purification of water refers to the removal of impurities

which are not good for health and other uses.

Therefore, potable or wholesome water is water that

does not contain harmful impurities & contains other

salts and impurities either good for health or un-harmful

to health.
 Raw Water Source

The various sources of raw water are generally classified

into two categories: Surface sources, and Sub-surface
sources or underground sources.

The available raw waters must be treated and purified

before they can be supplied to the public for their
domestic, industrial or any other uses.

The extent of treatment required to be given to the

particular water depends upon its quality characteristics,
and the quality requirements for the intended use.
 Importance of water quality considerations
To evaluate and classify raw water quality

To identify sources of pollution

To assess the treatment required for beneficial uses

Basic objectives of water treatment:
To remove dissolved mineral matters, settleable
suspended matter and non-settleable colloidal
impurities
To improve the aesthetic quality color, taste and odor
To remove unpleasant taste and odor,
To kill/destroy troublesome micro-organisms and their
remains,
Softening of water for use in domestic washing
laundries and boilers
Above all, to make water safe for drinking and fit for
domestic, commercial and industrial use.
 Treatment Processes
Source Treatment required
1. Ground water and spring water No treatment or Chlorination
fairly free from contamination

2. Ground water with chemicals, Aeration, coagulation (if

minerals and gases necessary), filtration and
disinfection

3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with Disinfection

less amount of pollution

4. Other surface waters such as rivers, Complete treatment

canals and impounded reservoirs with a
considerable amount of pollution
 1.2. Water Quality characteristics

Normally, the raw water is analyzed by testing

their physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics.
 Raw water impurities

Physical Chemical Biological

Dissolved Suspended Inorganic Organic Plant Animal Protista

Coarse Fine Colloidal

11
 1.2.1. Physical Characteristics
Physical Characteristics are those characteristics of water
that respond to the senses of sight, touch, taste or smell.

Physical parameters include:

Suspended solids

Turbidity

Colour

Taste and Odour

Temperature
 Suspended solids
Source
inorganic or organic particles.
Inorganic solids clay, silt, and other soil
constituents
Organic material plant fibers and biological
solids (algal cells, bacteria, etc)
Impacts
Aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption
sites for chemical and biological agents.
Measurement
gravimetric tests - by evaporating a sample to
dryness and weighing the residue.
 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the extent of which light is
either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in
water.
It is not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended
solids.
The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration
of particles present in water.
Source
the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock
fragments, and metal oxides from the soil.
Vegetable fibers and microorganisms
Impact
aesthetically displeasing due to opaqueness or milky
coloration
adsorption sites for chemicals and biological organisms
 Turbidity
Measurement
photometrically by determining the percentage of
light of a given intensity that is either absorbed or
scattered.
Measurement apparatus: by a turbidity meters:
Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) - measuring the depth of
column of liquid required to cause the image of a
candle flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform
glow.
Nephelometry turbidity unit (NTU) - measure level of
light scattered by the particles at right angles to the
incident light beam.
The IS value for drinking water is 10 to 25 NTU.
 Colour
Source: Dissolved organic matter from decaying
vegetation or some inorganic materials
Impact:
Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the
general public.
Highly colored water is unsuitable for laundering,
dyeing, papermaking, beverage manufacturing, diary
production and other food processing, and textile
and plastic production.
Measurement:
by comparing the colour of water sample with other
standard glass tubes containing solutions of different
standard colour intensities.
The standard unit of colour is that which is produced
by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one
litre of distilled water.
The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
Odour and Taste

Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating

substance with the appropriate human receptor cell.

Source:

Most organic and some inorganic chemicals,

originating from municipal or industrial wastes.

Phenolic compounds, common constituents of

vegetative decay products, produce very
objectionable taste and odor compounds
 Impact: character and intensity of taste and odour
discloses the nature of pollution or the presence of
microorganisms.

Measurement:

Taste and odour can be expressed in terms of odour

intensity or threshold values.

A new method to estimate taste of water sample has

been developed based on flavour known as 'Flavour
Profile Analysis' (FPA).
 Temperature
Temperature to a great extent determines
the trends and tendencies of changes in water quality.
The entire mechanism of water treatment depends on
temperature.
Sometimes increased temperature may increase the
odour of water because of the increased volatility of
odour producing compounds.
The increase in temperature decreases palatability,
because at elevated temperatures carbon dioxide and
some other volatile gases are expelled.
The ideal temperature of water for drinking purposes is 5
to 12 C - above 25 C, water is not recommended for
drinking.
 1.2.1. Chemical Characteristics
Water has been called the universal solvent, and
chemical parameters are related to the solvent
capabilities of water.
Major chemical parameters include:
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Iron
Nitrates
Metals
 pH

pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of water.

It is expressed on a scale ranging from 0 to 14, which is the

common logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration.

Without proper adjustment of pH, raw water may be

corrosive and adversely affect treatment processes.

The recommended pH range for treated drinking waters is

6.5 to 8.5.
 Acidity
Acidity is nothing but representation of carbondioxide or
carbonic acids.
Acidity of water may be caused by the presence of
uncombined carbondioxide and weak bases.
The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize bases.
It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.
Carbon dioxide causes corrosion in public water supply
systems.
 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to
neutralize acids.
It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.
The various forms of alkalinity are useful mainly in water
softening.
(a) hydroxide alkalinity,
(b) carbonate alkalinity,
(c) hydroxide plus carbonate alkalinity,
(d) carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and
(e) bicarbonate alkalinity,
Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the
optimum coagulant dosage.
 Hardness
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations.

The principal hardness causing cations are calcium,

magnesium, strontium, ferrous and manganese ions.

The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of

calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed
as calcium carbonate, in mg/L.

Hard water is one that requires considerable amounts of

soap to produce foam or lath
Hardness are of two types;

1. temporary or carbonate hardness and

2. permanent or non carbonate hardness.

Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and

carbonate ion can be precipitated by prolonged boiling.

Permanent hardness is one in which non-carbonate ions

cannot be precipitated or removed by boiling

IS value for drinking water is 300mg/L as CaCO3.

 Carbonate and Non Carbonate Hardness
Carbonate hardness Non-carbonate hardness

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

Magnesium carbonate Magnesium sulfate
(MgCO3) (MgSO4)
Calcium bicarbonate Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
(Ca(HCO3)2)
Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium chloride
(Mg(HCO3)2) (MgCl2)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Magnesium hydroxide
(Mg(OH)2)
Degree of Hardness
 Chlorides
Chloride ion may present in combination with one or
more of the cations of calcium, magnesium, iron and
sodium.
Chlorides of these minerals present in water because of
their high solubility in water.
Each human being consumes about six to eight grams of
sodium chloride per day, a part of which is discharged
through urine and night soil.
Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates
sewage pollution.
IS value for drinking water is 250 to 1000 mg/L.
 Sulphates
Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate
mineral and oxidation of sulphides.
Sulphates are associated generally with calcium,
magnesium and sodium ions.
Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect and
leads to scale formation in boilers.
It also causes odour and corrosion problems under
aerobic conditions.
Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L, for some
industries.
Desirable limit for drinking water is150 mg/L. May be
extended upto 400 mg/L.
 Iron
Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide.
When it comes in contact with water, it dissolves to form
ferrous bicarbonate under favorable conditions.
This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized into ferric hydroxide,
which is a precipitate.
Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to
soluble ferrous ion. Iron can impart bad taste to the
water, causes discoloration in clothes and incrustations
in water mains.
IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.
 Nitrates
Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of
fertilizers from soil during surface run-off and also
nitrification of organic matter.

Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an

indication of pollution.

Concentration of nitrates above 45mg/L cause a disease

called methemoglobinemia.

IS value is 45 mg/L.
 Fluorides
Excessive In Ethiopian Rift Valley areas
Groundwater usually contains higher concentrations
than surface waters
Excessive fluoride in drinking water causes Fluorosis
The presence of Calcium in water limits fluoride toxicity
Fluorosis is less sever when drinking water is hard
The removal of fluoride from drinking water is not
simple, it requires advanced water treatment, which is
very expensive
The WHO guideline for fluoride is 1.5mg/lit., while the
Ethiopian Drinking water quality guideline
recommended 3mg/lit.
 Effects of Floursis
1.5 and 3 mg/l are the guideline values of WHO &
EDWQG respectively.

Greater than 1.5 mg/l : Dental Fluorosis.

Greater than 3 mg/l : Skeletal Fluorosis.

Skeletal Fluorosis Dental Fluorosis

 Metals
All metals are soluble to some extent in water

Source:
dissolution from natural deposits and discharges of domestic,
industrial, or agricultural wastewaters.

Nontoxic Metals: toxic only at high concentration;

sodium, iron, magnesium, aluminum, copper and zinc.

Toxic metals: toxic at very low concentration

arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury, and silver

 1.2.3. Biological Characteristics
Biological Characteristics
Presence or absence of living organisms in water most
useful indicators of its quality.
Pathogens: organisms capable of infecting, or of
transmitting diseases to humans.
not native to aquatic systems and usually require an
animal host for growth and reproduction.
Includes: bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthes
(parasitic worms).
Pathogen Indicators:
Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it
indicates the degree of pollution.
Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species of
disease producing pathogenic bacteria.
Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many
non pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a member of coliform
group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.
Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more
resistance to adverse condition than any other group.
So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the
harmful species will be very less.
So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of
water with sewage and presence of pathogens.
 Reason for selecting coliforms:
normally inhabit the intestinal tracts of humans and other
mammals their presence indicates fecal contamination
of the water.
the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces
outnumbers the disease-producing organism by several
orders of magnitude easier to culture than disease-
producing organisms.
survive in natural waters for relatively long periods of
time without reproduction their presence assures fecal
contamination/ their absence means the water is safe.
coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture
without expensive equipments.
 The methods used to estimate the bacterial quality of
water are:

Standard Plate Count Test

Membrane Filter Technique

 Standard Plate Count Test

In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as colonies, by

innoculating a known volume of sample into a solidifiable
nutrient medium (Nutrient Agar), which is poured in a
petridish.
After incubating (at 35C) for a specified period (24 hours),
the colonies of bacteria (as spots) are counted.
The bacterial density is expressed as number of colonies per
100 ml of sample.
 Membrane Filter Technique
It is a direct method of counting coliform bacteria.

In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered

through a membrane with opening less than 0.5
microns.

The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon

the filter paper. The filter paper is put in contact of a
suitable nutrient medium and kept in an incubator for 24
hours at 35C.
The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium
and visible colonies are counted.

Each colony representing one coliform (one

bacterium of the original sample) is counted.

The bacterial count is expressed as number of

colonies per 100 ml of sample.
 1.3. Water Quality Standards
Water Quality Standards:
limits on the amount of impurities in water for the
intended use

legally enforced or recommended

include rules and regulations for sampling, testing

and reporting procedures.
Criteria: The scientific
data evaluated to derive Standards: A plan that is
recommendations for established by a
characteristics of water government agency as a
for specific uses. It program for water
represents the first step pollution treatment and
in ultimate development prevention.
of standards.
 Basic quality requirements of drinking water
Free from diseases causing pathogenic organisms

Contain no compounds that have adverse effect on human

health

Fairly clear (i.e., of low turbidity, little color)

Contain no compounds that cause offensive taste and odor

Free of substances and organisms that cause corrosion or

encrustation of the water supply system, staining of clothes
washed in it or food items cooked with it.
47
Water Quality Standards:
Three types of standards : stream standards, effluent
standards, and drinking water standards.
Water Quality Standards:

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) establishes minimum

drinking water standards in different countries.

Drinking water - human/ livestock

Fish and Wildlife

Crop production : irrigation

Industrial processing

Recreational use/swimming/ boating

Water Quality Standards:

Primary

protect public health - maximum contaminant levels

is set.

Enforced

Secondary

esthetic qualities - color, odor, taste

recommended but not enforced

 Physical Water Quality Standard

Type of Impurity Maximum Permissible limit

Turbidity 5 10 mg/lit on JTU Scale

Color 10 to 20 colour number on platinum-cobalt scale

Taste Unobjectionable

Odour Threshold odour number limited among 1 to 3

pH value 6.6 to 8.0

 Chemical Water Quality Standard
Max. Max.
Type of impurity permissible Type of impurity permissible
limit Limit
Chloride 250mg/lit Total solids 500 - 1000

Nitrate( NO3) 45mg/lit Hardness 75 - 115

Iron 0.3 mg/lit Lead 0.05 0.1

Manganeze 0.05mg/lit Copper 1.0 3.0

Arsenic 0.05mg/lit Zink 15

Selenium 0.05mg/lit Magnezium 125

Barium 1.0mg/lit Sulphate 250

Cadmium 0.01mg/lit Fluoride 1.5

Chromium 0.05mg/lit Cyanide 0.2

Silver 0.054mg/lit pH value 6.6 8.0

 1.4. Water Sampling

A water sample for characteristic test has to be properly

collected, preserved, transported, identified and
analyzed.

Sampling methods:

1. Grab sampling

2. Composite sampling
1. Grab Sampling
a single sample collected over a very short period of time.

only represent the conditions of the water at the particular

time and location.

Not suitable for parameters that change instantly

2. Composite Sampling

grab samples taken at regular intervals over the sampling

period.

more appropriate to determine overall or average conditions

over a certain period of time.
 Selection of Sampling Points: sampling points include:

Source

Treatment plant

Reservoirs

Distribution systems
 Transportation and Handling of Samples
Both chemical and bacteriological samples should be
transported in an insulated boxes (preferable in ice box)

Kept at temperature between 40C and 100C.

This can be done by packing with bags containing a

freezing mixture.

If samples cannot be cooled, they must be examined with

in 2 hrs. of sampling, if neither condition can be met, the
sample should not be analyzed. (for bact.)
 It is preferable that the examination of bacteriological
samples be begun within 24 hours of the collection

In the case of chemical analysis, parameters which are

subject to change, such as alkalinity or nitrate analysis
should be conducted within 24 hours of collection
The box used to carry samples should be cleaned and
disinfected.
The bottles and the samplers hands should be disinfected
after each use to avoid the contamination.

Generally, the amount of time a sample can be stored

depends on the constituents stability
 Sample Identification
All samples should be identified immediately and clearly
Identification of samples shall be made by labeling and
should include clear information which can be
understood by others like:
Location of sampling point
Date
Time
Description of sample
Comments relating to special conditions which might
affect results
 Sample Frequency

Sampling frequencies for raw water sources depend on;

Their overall quality

Their size

The likelyhood of contamination

The season of the year

Sampling frequencies for treated water depend on:

The quality of water sources

The type of treatment

 Frequency of sampling increased at a time of:

Epidemics,

Flooding,

Emergency operations,

Following interruptions of supply,

Repair work.
 Sampling treated water

When samples of disinfected water are taken, the

concentration of residual chlorine & pH should be
determined at the time of collection.

Samples must be taken from different parts of the

distribution systems to ensure that all parts of the
system are tested.

Before the sample is taken, taps & sampling pots should

be disinfected & a quantity of water run first to flush out
the standing water in the pipe.
Sample preservation techniques:

Chemical addition/Acidification/ - addition of acid to the

sample to preserve dissolved metals (HNO3, H2SO4, etc)

Freezing

Refrigeration at 40C is a common preservation technique,

which is widely used in the fieldwork.

Sample analysis

Water quality analysis categorized in two major groups:

Bacteriological examinations

Physico-Chemical analysis
 Common Water Quality Equipments

Spectro-photometer - for physico-chemical analysis

Incubator & Accessories - for microbiological analysis

Conductive meter - for measurement of EC & TDS

Turbidity meter - for measurement of turbidity

PH meter - for measurement of PH

Flock Tester /Jar Test/- for determination of quantity

chemicals

Chlorine Comparator - for measurement of residual chlorine

Different Chemicals & Reagents

 Laboratory Methods for Water Quality Analysis
Gravimetric methods
- Weighting solids obtained by evaporation, filtration or precipitation (e.g. Total
solids, Total suspended solids, etc.)
Volumetric (titrimetric) methods
Requires a liquid reagent of known strength and indicators (e.g. alkalinity,
acidity, DO, chloride, etc.)
Spectrometric (colorimetric) methods
Relation between electromagnetic waves and chemicals concentration (e.g.
Nitrate, nitrite)
Chromatographic methods
Can separate individual components from a complex (e.g. volatile organic
compounds, disinfection by-products, etc.)
Electrochemical methods
Relates electric potential, current or resistance to concentration of ions (e.g.
pH, anions and cations, metals, conductivity etc.).
They are good for in-situ measurements
64
 General Requirements in Water Sampling
The sample must be truly representative of the existing
conditions.
The time between collection and analysis should be as
short as possible for most reliable results.
Appropriate preservation techniques should be applied
to slow down the biological or chemical changes that
may occur in the time between sample collection and
sample analysis.
This usually involves refrigeration to cool the sample or
chemical fixing.
Accurate and thorough sampling records must be kept to
avoid confusion as the what, when, and where of the
sample.
THANK YOU