WELDING DEFECTS ITS CAUSES

AND REMEDIAL ACTIONS & SAFETY

IN OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING

By

PREM S NAUTIYAL
 Discontinuity
An interruption of the typical structure
of a material, such as a lack of
homogeneity in its mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics.
A discontinuity is not necessarily a
defect but all defects are
discontinuities.
 Defect
A defect is a rejectable discontinuity,
which occurs in an amount great
enough to render a particular object or
structure unsuitable for its intended
service based on criteria in the
applicable code.
 Classification of Defects
1) Planar defects / Two dimensional defects
E.g. cracks, lack of fusion, lack of penetration,
are crtical in nature and are not tolerated to
any extent.
2) Voluminar defects / Three dimensional
defects
E.g. slag inclusion, cavities, porosities, etc are
tolerated to a certain extent depending on
the product class and applicable code.
3) Geometric defects
E.g. excess reinforcement, underfill, root
suckback, distortion and are permitted to a
certain extent.
 Weld Joint Discontinuities
Misalignment (hi-lo) Inclusions Base Metal
Undercut Slag Discontinuities
Tungsten Laminations
Underfill

Concavity or Convexity Spatter

Arc Craters Porosity
Excessive reinforcement
Uniformly Scattered
Improper reinforcement Cracks
Cluster
Overlap Longitudinal
Linear
Transverse
Burn-through
Crater
Incomplete or Insufficient
Throat
Penetration
Toe
Incomplete Fusion
Root
Arc Strikes Underbead and
Heat-affected
zone
Hot
Cold or delayed
 Misalignment (hi-lo)

Definition: Amount a joint is

out of alignment at the root

Cause: Carelessness. Also due to joining different

thicknesses (transition thickness)
Prevention: Good Workmanship.

Repair: Grinding. Careful on surface finish and direction of

grind marks.
 Undercut
Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left unfilled.
Cause: High amperage, electrode
angle, long arc length, rust.
Prevention: Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal
before welding.
Repair: Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be
low hydrogen with preheat. Sometimes must gouge first.
Undercut
UNDERCUT
Undercut
 Insufficient Fill on the Root Side
(Suck back)
Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces
of the base metal at the weld root.
Cause: Typically improper joint preparation or excessive
weld pool heat.

Repair: Back weld to fill. May require removal of weld

section by grinding for access to the joint root.
Suck back
 Excessive Concavity or
Convexity
Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld
which exceeds the specified allowable limits

Cause: Amperage and travel speed

Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques.

Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal.
Concavity
Convexity
 Reinforcement
The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond
the surface of the plate
Excessive Face Reinforcement
Insufficient
Improper
contour

Root Reinforcement
 Excessive Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard.
Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to 1/16(pipe)
or flush to 1/8 (plate or structural shapes).

Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the

weld toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.
Excessive reinforcement
 Insufficient Reinforcement
Definition: Specifically defined by the standard. Typically,
Underfill may be up to 5% of metal thickness, not to exceed
1/32. Not applied to fillet welds.

Cause: On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will

cause thinning of the filler metal.

Prevention: Use proper welding technique. Use backing or

consumable inserts. Use back weld or backing.
Repair: Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement. If
back welding is not possible, must remove and reweld.
Insufficient reinforcement
 Burn-through
Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been
completely melted through the base metal. The hole may or
may not be left open.
Cause: Excessive heat input.

Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed,

use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding parameters.
Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.
Otherwise, removal and re welding may be required.
Burn-through
 Lack Of Penetration

Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the

required depth into the joint root
Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast
travel speed, short arc length.
Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).

Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and reweld.

Lack Of Penetration
 Incomplete Fusion

Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive

bond with the base metal.
Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel
speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too small,
unclean base metal.
Prevention: Eliminate the potential causes.

Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely

remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.
Incomplete Fusion
 Arc Strike
Definition: Arc strikes result when the arc is initiated on
the base metal surface away from the weld joint either
intentionally or accidentally
Cause: Carelessness of welder
Prevention: In difficult areas, adjacent areas can be
protected using fire blankets.
Repair: Where applicable, arc strikes must be grinded
smooth and tested for cracks. If found, they must be remove
and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.
Arc Strike
 Slag Inclusion
Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld

Cause: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld

in an area that is too tight. Improper wire brushing /
cleaning between passes.

Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out tight

areas to gain access to bottom of joint.
Repair: Remove by grinding. Reweld.
Slag inclusion
 Tungsten Inclusion
Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld.
(Typically GTAW only)
Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high,
electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched with the
filler rod.
Prevention: Thoriated or Zirconiated tungsten electrodes are
used in place of pure tungsten electrodes.

Repair: Grind out and reweld

Tungsten inclusion
 Spatter

Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the

welding operation which adhere to the base metal surface.
Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high
amperages.
Prevention: Correct the cause.

Repair: Remove by grinding or sanding.

Spatter
 Cracks
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Throat
Toe
Root
Under bead and Heat-affected zone
Hot
Cold or delayed
 Longitudinal Crack
Definition: A crack running in the direction of the weld axis.

Cause: Preheat or fast cooling problem. Also caused by

shrinkage stresses in high restraint areas.
Prevention: Weld toward areas of less restraint. Also preheat
to even out the cooling rates.
Repair: Remove and reweld
 Transverse Crack
Definition: A crack running into or inside a weld,
transverse to the weld axis direction.
Cause: Weld metal hardness problem
 Crater Crack
Definition: A crack, generally in the shape of an X
which is found in a crater. Crater cracks are hot cracks.
Cause: The center of the weld pool becomes solid before
the outside of the weld pool, pulling the center apart
during cooling

Prevention: Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld

termination and/or preheat to even out the cooling of the
puddle
CRATER CRACK
 Throat Crack
Definition: A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat
area.
Cause: Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.
Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding
procedure. May be due to crater crack propagation.
Prevention: Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat may
prevent it. be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more ductile
filler material.
Repair: Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure.
Be sure to correct initial problem first.
 Toe Crack
Definition: A crack in the base metal beginning at the toe
of the weld
Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Indicates a HAZ
brittleness problem.
Prevention: Increase preheat if possible, or use a more
ductile filler material.
 Root Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld at the weld root.

Cause: Transverse shrinkage stresses. Same as a throat

crack.
Prevention: Same as a throat crack
 Under bead Crack
Definition: A crack in the un melted parent metal of the
HAZ.
Cause: Hydrogen embrittlement

Prevention: Use Low hydrogen electrodes and/or preheat

Repair: (only found using NDT). Remove and reweld.

 Hot Crack
Definition: A crack in the weld that occurs during
solidification.
Cause: Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling
apart weld metal as it cools from liquid to solid temp.
Prevention: Preheat or use a low tensile filler material.
 Cold Crack
Definition: A crack that occurs after the metal has
completely solidified
Cause: Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds.

Prevention: Preheat, weld toward areas of less restraint, use

a more ductile weld metal
Repair: Remove and reweld, correct problem first, preheat
may be necessary.
 Repair to Cracks

Determine the cause

Correct the problem
Take precautions to prevent
reoccurrence
Generally required to repair using a
smaller diameter electrode
Cracks
Cracks
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
POROSITY & UNDER CUT
POROSITY
WELD BEAD CRACK
CRACK
CRACK
 Porosity - Types

Porosity is gas pores found in the

solidified weld bead.
Single Pore
Uniformly Scattered
Cluster
Linear
POROSITY
POROSITY
PIN HOLE
POROSITY & UNDER CUT
Porosity
Clustered Porosity
 Porosity - Prevention

preheat
may need an electrode with more
deoxidizers
Use run-on/run-off taps
Use proper shielding gas flow in MIG
welding
Use Re dried and baked electrodes
 Laminations
Base Metal Discontinuity
May require repair prior to welding
Formed during the milling process
Lamination effects can be reduced by joint design:
INSPECTION METHOD

JOINT RT UT PT MT VT

BUTT A A A A A

CORNER O A A A A

TEE O A A A A

LAP U O A A A
O - Marginally
A APPLICABLE U- Not applicable
applicablity
Acceptance Standards
AWS D1.1 :
Crack not permitted
Slag, LoF, LoP Permitted to a certain
size
Porosity accepted upto certain sizes
ASME
Crack, L o F, L o P Not permitted
Slag permitted ( < t/3 )
 Welding
Distortion
 What is distortion ?
Before distortion
Undesirable change in
original shape is called
DISTORTION
After distortion
Distortion occurs due to heat input
and mechanical forces.
 Experiment No 1:
DURING HEATED CONDITION

X BEFORE HEATING AND AFTER COOLING

X + 9X

Uniform heating of a steel bar through out of its entire volume -

considerable expansion take place in all direction.
Now, if cooling of the bar is allowed evenly - retain its original
shape and size without distortion.
 So, we can say that,
Uniform heating and cooling of
a component that can expand
and contract does not cause
any appreciable distortion
 Experiment No 2 :

CLAMPING CLAMPING
JAWS JAWS

STEEL BAR BEFORE STEEL BAR AFTER HEATING

HEATING & COOLING DOWN

Repeat experiment no:1 but heat the steel bar in

clamp condition and see the changes in shape and size
after cooling.
So, we can conclude that,
Restraint hinders free expansion
and contraction and causes

material to deform resulting in

Distortion
 Heat input

Gas cutting/heating welding

 Longitudinal distortion
WELD BEAD
ORIGINAL POSITION

LONGITUDINAL
AFTER WELDING
DISTORTION
 Distortion in Butt welds
Longitudinal Distortion

It is contraction along the length of weld bead

It is maximum along weld bead and decreases at

points away from the bead.

In C/S of shell it lead to reduction in diameter at the

weld
LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
(A) BUTT WELDS IN CS/LAS

LS = 3 x I x L / 100,000 x t

LS = longitudinal shrinkage (mm)

I = welding current(amp)
L = length of weld (mm)
t = plate thickness (mm)
 LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
(B) FILLET WELD

LS = 25 Aw/ Ap
Aw = Weld X Sectional area
Ap = Resisting X Sectional area

Ap
Aw
 Distortion in Butt welds
Transverse Distortion

It is the shrinkage perpendicular to the weld.

It leads to the development of high residual stress and

also cracking in case of highly restrained joint.

It is not uniform along the length of the plate

It is lesser at that end of plate where bead is started.

 Transverse distortion
WELD BEAD
ORIGINAL POSITION

TRANSVERSE WELD BEAD

DISTORTION AFTER WELDING
TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE IN
SINGLE PASS BUTT JOINTS

S = 0.2 Aw / t + 0.05 d

Where
S = Transverse Shrinkage (mm)
Aw = Cross sectional Area of Weld (mm2)
t = Thickness of Plates (mm)
d = Root Opening (mm)
TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE
DURING MULTIPASS WELDING
TS = TS0 + b (log w - log w0)

Where
TS = Total Transverse Shrinkage
TS0 = Transverse Shrinkage after first pass
w = Total weight of weld metal
w0 = weight of first pass weld metal
b = a coefficient
Angular distortion

AFTER WELDING

ORIGINAL POSITION
 Distortion in Butt welds
Angular Distortion

It is the bending transverse to the weld.

Due to non-uniform heating and cooling

along the thickness of plate.

This is the main source of mismatch and

dimensional inaccuracy in large welded
structures
 Angular Distortion in Butt
Joints
1. Use Both Side Welding Technique in place of Single Side
Welding

t1
t t3
t2
g
 Distortion in T-joints
Angular distortion

Before welding After welding

 To prevent distortion :-
(A)
Reduce the effective
shrinkage force.
Reduce effective shrinkage force
(A-1) Keep the angle of weld joint to the
barest minimum.
50 deg. +/- 5 deg.

keep the angle of weld joint 45 deg.

MINIMUM ANGLE, LESS WELDING , LESS HEAT INPUT

Hence less distortion
 Reduce effective shrinkage force
REINFORCEMENT REQUIRE MENT
20 MM (+5/-1)

KEEP REINFORCEMENT UP TO 19 MM

(A-2) Do not keep root gap more than required

(A-3) Do not do over- welding.
7 mm +3/-1 keep fillet size 18 mm/6 mm

19 mm +3/-1

50 deg. +/- 5 deg.

keep the angle of weld joint 45 deg.

Reduce effective shrinkage force
(A-4) Minimize no. of passes using larger
size electrodes

MORE NO OF PASSES LESS NO OF PASSES

 Reduce effective shrinkage force
(A-5) Place welds near the neutral axis

N. A.
 To prevent distortion :-

(B)
Make shrinkage work
for us
Make shrinkage work for us
Keep over dimensions OR over
bend before welding
To prevent distortion :-

(C)
Balance shrinkage
force with other
forces
 Balance shrinkage forces
with other forces.

6
2 5
5

(C-1) 4

4 3
Do Sequence welding 3

6 1 1

4
1
2
3
 Balance shrinkage forces
with other forces
(C-2) Back step welding

1 2 3 4

Welding progression
Distortion During Oxy-acetylene
Cutting
PLATE

STRIP

STRIP CUTTING FROM PLATE

The strip tends to bow outwards as shown
Distortion ( bow ) results due to unequal heating of
the metal
During cutting when hot, the bow is more on cooling
& the bow diminishes slightly
Finally the strip never returns to its intended shape
 Controlling distortion during oxy-
acetylene cutting
PLATE

TORCH I
STRIP

DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
FOR TORCHES

SCRAP 10 mm TORCH II

METHOD I
Two Torches Technique
Mark strip of required width leaving 10 mm distance
Move two torches simultaneously carrying out cutting operation
 Controlling distortion during
oxy - acetylene cutting
PLATE
STRIPS

KERF HOLE

Method II
Mark the strips with kerf allowance on the plate
Drill small hole in kerf allowance at distance 20 mm away from
the edge
Start cut from drilled hole in kerf to the end such that the strip
is attached to main plate
Cut the balance strip attached to the plate
 Reduction in distortion

Less weld edge preparation.

Less welding current as per WPS.
Higher base metal thickness.
Lesser welding passes
Do not over weld
More distortion in stainless steel then
carbon steel.
 Reduction in distortion
Provide intermittent welding
Place weld near the neutral axis
Balancing weld around neutral axis
Sequence welding
Pre bending OR Pre cambering
Back to back clamping
Double operator welding technique
 Safety In
Oxyfuel Gas
Cutting
 Oxyfuel Gas Cutting
Oxy-fuel cutting of metal uses a gas torch, called
a cutting torch.
Here the metal is heated until it glows orange
(around 1800F = 982C), and then a lever on the
torch is pressed to pass a stream of oxygen
through the work-piece, to burn the steel away
where the cut is desired.
The iron-oxide product of this combustion
process falls to the floor as a dust.
PORTABLE GAS WELDING/CUTTING UNIT
OXY-FUEL GAS
CUTTING
 SAFETY
PRECAUTION
WHILE GAS
CUTTING
"Welding is never a more dangerous trade than others,
However gas cutting can be more dangerous"

Regardless the above fact, there are widely

spread out Welding, Cutting & Gouging Processes are
in use with shop and site

"PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE."

 SAFETY
PRECAUTION
WHILE GAS
CUTTING

The management's policy towards safety have

been considered as one of the most significant
factor.
"PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN
CURE."

IT IS A DUTY OF EACH & EVERY EMPLOYER TO ENSURE THAT
THE PLANT PREMISES AND THE SYSTEMS ARE REASONABLY
PRACTICABLE AND SAFE, WITHOUT THE RISK.
Ref. IS: 8181968; Code of Practice for Safety & Health Requirements
in Electric and Gas Welding & Cutting Operations.

THE EMPLOYEES TOO HAVE AN EQUAL OBLIGATION
TO TAKE REASONABLE CARE FOR THEIR HEALTH &
SAFETY FOR THEMSELVES.
 ACCIDENT, BY DEFINITION, IS AN UNPLANNED
OCCURRENCE; WHICH MAY RESULT IN A
DISABILITY, LOSS OF LIVES, SERIOUS
PARALLEL DAMAGES TO THE PROPERTIES OR
ALL THE ABOVE.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENT
1)CARELESSNESS
2)OVERCONFIDENCE
3)IGNORANCE
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1 - NO UNTRAINED OR UNQUALIFIED
WELDERS/OPERATORS SHALL BE EMPLOYED ON
THE JOB.
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

2 - DO NOT WELD OR CUT IN A NON-

VENTILATED CONFINED SPACE OR AREAS.
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

3 - MARK "HOT" IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE

SUBSTRATES ARE WELDED OR GAS CUT
GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

4 - Do not get distracted by other matters (e.g.

a conversation, a sports commentary, etc) during
welding or cutting:

"distraction causes destruction".

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

5 Always Use Flashback Arrestors to Prevent

Backfire of Torch.
PREVENT FIRE & EXPLOSION:

Remove all combustible materials from gas cutting

zone- i.e. cotton waste, wood, paint, gasoline, grease & oil.
If not, do not weld or cut until unless the floor areas
are fully protected or covered by the fire resistant
materials.
Keep the suitable, ready to use, fire extinguisher.
To reduce fire hazards, workers and supervisors should also
be made aware what equipment should be shut down before
leaving the work area.
 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE DEVICES:

Processes Required [filter/shade Nos.]

[Welding/cutting]

Oxy-Fuel gas Cutting 4&6

Oxy-Fuel gas Welding 4, 6 & 8
Shielded Metal Arc Welding 10, 11 & 12
Gas shielded Tung./Metal Arc Welding 11 & 12
Plasma Arc Welding/Cutting. 12 & 14

Carbon Arc-air Gouging 14 & 16

Note: Attempt shall be to chose only the darker option

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING:

Sparks/spatters may lodge in cuffs, pockets, rolled-

up sleeves, trousers & safety shoes/boots. Therefore
collar & sleeves shall be buttoned, but never be
rolled-up. Safety shoes/boots shall always be covered
by the leg-guards and the boots should have steel
toecaps because of the risk from dropped objects .
Gas cutting produces molten droplets/spatters/slag
which are scattered all around.

Welders need good quality hand gloves,

preferably made out of leather, safety shoes.
cap & overalls.
Thanks
To

All of you