Professional Documents
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ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 2 :
DC Machines
By:
En. Muhammad Mahyiddin Ramli
Contents
Introduction
DC Machines Construction
DC motors : Principles of Operation,
Equivalent circuit & Characteristics
DC generators : Principles of Operation,
Equivalent circuit & Characteristics
Review
Chap 2: DC Machines 2
Introduction: What are DC Machines?
Chap 2: DC Machines 3
Introduction
Chap 2: DC Machines 4
Types of DC Motors
Chap 2: DC Machines 5
DC Machines Construction
Rotor of a dc motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 6
DC Machines Construction
Chap 2: DC Machines 7
DC Machines Construction
The stator of the dc motor has
poles, which are excited by dc
current to produce magnetic
fields.
In the neutral zone, in the
middle between the poles,
commutating poles are placed
to reduce sparking of the
commutator. The commutating
poles are supplied by dc
current.
Compensating windings are
mounted on the main poles.
These short-circuited windings
damp rotor oscillations.
Chap 2: DC Machines 8
DC Machines Construction
The poles are mounted on an
iron core that provides a closed
magnetic circuit.
The motor housing supports
the iron core, the brushes and
the bearings.
The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with slots.
Coils with several turns are
placed in the slots. The
distance between the two legs
of the coil is about 180 electric
degrees.
Chap 2: DC Machines 9
DC Machines Construction
The coils are connected in
series through the
commutator segments.
The ends of each coil are
connected to a commutator
segment.
The commutator consists of
insulated copper segments
mounted on an insulated
tube.
Two brushes are pressed to
the commutator to permit
current flow.
The brushes are placed in
the neutral zone, where the
magnetic field is close to
zero, to reduce arcing.
Chap 2: DC Machines 10
DC Machines Construction
Chap 2: DC Machines 11
Review of magnetism
The flow of electrical current in a conductor sets up concentric lines of magnetic flux around the conductor.
Chap 2: DC Machines 12
Review of magnetism
Chap 2: DC Machines 13
Review of magnetism
In either the motor or generator, if the directions of any two factors are
known, the third can be easily determined.
Chap 2: DC Machines 14
DC Motor Operation
Chap 2: DC Machines 15
Current in DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 16
Magnetic Field in DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 17
Force in DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 18
Basic Principle of Operation
The generated voltage of a DC machines having (p) poles and (Z) conductors
on the armature with (a) parallel path between brushes as below :
pZ
EA K
2a
where K = pZ /(2a) = machine constant
Chap 2: DC Machines 19
Basic Principle of Operation
Chap 2: DC Machines 20
Basic Principle of Operation
EA K ' I F
Where
K = voltage constant
= rotation per min
If the losses of the DC machine are neglected, the electrical power is equal to the
mechanical power
E A I A m
Chap 2: DC Machines 21
Generation of Unidirectional Voltage
As the rotor is rotated at an angular velocity
(), the armature flux linkage () change
and a voltage eaa is induced between
terminal a and a. The expression for the
voltage induced is given by Faradays Law
d
eaa '
dt
Chap 2: DC Machines 22
Two pole DC generator
Generation of Unidirectional Voltage
EA K
Where EA = armature voltage
K = motor constant
= flux
= rotation per min
Chap 2: DC Machines 23
DC Motor Equivalent Circuit
The brush
voltage
drop
RA
External variable resistor
used to control the
amount of current in the Armature circuit
field circuit (entire rotor structure)
Field Coils
Note: Because a dc motor is the same physical machine as a dc generator, its equivalent
circuit is exactly the same as generator except for the direction of current flow.
Chap 2: DC Machines 24
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
The brush drop voltage (Vbrush ) is often only a very tiny fraction of the generated
voltage in the machine Neglected or included in RA.
Internal resistance of the field coils is sometimes lumped together with the
variable resistor and called RF - Combining Radj with field resistance (RF).
Chap 2: DC Machines 25
The Magnetization Curve of a DC machine
Chap 2: DC Machines 26
The Magnetization Curve of a DC machine
Note: To get the maximum possible power, the motors and generators are designed to
operate near the saturation point on the magnetization curve (at the knee of the curve).
Chap 2: DC Machines 27
The Magnetization Curve
ind KI A
Chap 2: DC Machines 28
The equivalent circuit of Separately Excited DC Motor
IF
VF
IL IA
RF
VT E A I A RA
Chap 2: DC Machines 29
The equivalent circuit of a Shunt DC Motor
VT
IF
RF
A shunt dc motor is a motor whose VT E A I A RA
field circuit get its power directly
across the armature terminals of the IL IA IF
motor.
Chap 2: DC Machines 30
How Shunt response to load? - Speed-Torque
Characteristics
Consider the DC shunt motor. From the Kirchoffs Law
VT E A I A RA
Induced Voltage
VT K I A RA
EA K
Substituting the expression for induced
voltage between VT and EA.
VT K I A RA
Since then, current IA can be expressed as
ind
IA
K
ind
VT K VT RA
K
RA
Finally, solving for the motor's speed yield K ( K) 2 ind
Chap 2: DC Machines 31
Speed-Torque Characteristics
This equation is a straight line with a negative slope. The graph shows the
torque-speed characteristics of a shunt dc motor.
VT RA
K ( K) 2 ind
Chap 2: DC Machines 32
Speed-Torque Characteristics
Affect of Armature Reaction (AR) will reduce flux as the load increase (ind
also increase), so it will increase motor speed (). => E K
A
If the motor has compensating winding, the flux () will be constant.
VT RA
K ( K) 2 ind
Chap 2: DC Machines 33
Speed-Torque Characteristics
In order for the motor speed to vary linearly with torque, the other term in
this expression must be constant as the load changes.
The terminal supplied by the dc power source is assumed to be constant
if not, then the voltage variations will effect the shape of the torque-speed
curve.
However, in actual machine, as the load increase, the flux is reduced
because of the armature reaction. Since the denominator terms decrease,
there is less reduction in speed and speed regulation is improved (as
shown in previous slide).
If a motor has compensating windings, of course there will be no flux-
weakening problem in the machines, and the flux in the machine will be
constant
Chap 2: DC Machines 34
Speed Control of Shunt DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 35
1 : Changing The Field Resistance
VT to decrease.
1. Increasing RF causes IF
RF
2. Decreasing IF decreases .
3. Decreasing lowers EA K
VT E A
4. Decreasing EA by increasing IA
RA
Chap 2: DC Machines 36
1: Changing The Field Resistance
7. Increasing speed to increases EA = K again.
Chap 2: DC Machines 37
2: Changing The Armature Voltage
Chap 2: DC Machines 38
2: Changing The Armature Voltage
Chap 2: DC Machines 39
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with Armature Circuit
Add resistor in series
with RA
Chap 2: DC Machines 40
3 : Inserting Resistor in Series with Armature Circuit
Add resistor in series
with RA
VT RA
K ( K) 2 ind
This method is very wasteful method of speed control, since the losses in
the inserted resistor is very large. For this it is rarely used.
Chap 2: DC Machines 41
The Series DC Motor
VT E A I A ( RA RS )
Chap 2: DC Machines 42
Induced Torque in a Series DC Motor
cI A
where c is a constant of proportionality. The induced torque in this machine
is thus given by
ind KI A KcI A 2
This equation shows that a series motor give more torque per ampere than any
other dc motor, therefore it is used in applications requiring very high torque,
example starter motors in cars, elevator motors, and tractor motors in locomotives.
Chap 2: DC Machines 43
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series DC Motor.
To determine the terminal characteristic of a series dc motor, an analysis will be
based on the assumption of a linear magnetization curve, and the effects of
saturation will be considered in a graphical analysis
The assumption of a linear magnetization curve implies that the flux in the motor
cI A
given by :
ind
VT K ( RA RS )
Kc
We know I A ;
c
Substituting theWequations so the induced torque equation can written as
e K 2
k ind
n c
o
w in the series
Therefore, the flux c
motor can be written as : ind
; K
Chap 2: DC Machines 45
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series DC Motor.
c ind
VT K ind ( RA RS )
K Kc
The resulting torque speed relationship is
VT 1 R A RS
Kc ind Kc
Chap 2: DC Machines 46
The Terminal Characteristic of a Series DC Motor.
However, if no other load is connected to the motor, it can turn fast enough to
seriously damage itself.
NEVER completely unload a series motor, and never connect one to a load by a
belt or other mechanism that could break.
Chap 2: DC Machines 47
Speed Control of Series DC Motor
Method of controlling the speed in series motor.
1. Change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is increased,
the speed also increased, resulting in a higher speed for any given torque. This
is only one efficient way to change the speed of a series motor.
VT 1 R A RS
Kc ind Kc
2. By the insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this technique is
very wasteful of power and is used only for intermittent period during the
start-up of some motor.
Chap 2: DC Machines 48
The Compounded DC Motor.
series series
shunt
shunt
The equivalent compound DC motor (a) Long-shunt connection (cumulative
compounding) (b) Short-shunt connection (differential compounding)
Chap 2: DC Machines 49
The Compounded DC Motor.
series series
shunt
shunt
If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series field and shunt field windings are
in same direction, that is, additive, the dc motor is cumulative compound. If the
magnetic fluxes are in opposite, the dc motor is differential compound.
Chap 2: DC Machines 50
The Compounded DC Motor.
series series
shunt
shunt
In long shunt compound dc motor, the series field is connected in series with
armature and the combination is in parallel with the shunt field. In the short
shunt field compound dc motor, the shunt field is in parallel with armature and
the combination is connected in series with the series field.
Chap 2: DC Machines 51
The Compounded DC Motor.
VT E A I A ( R A RS )
Chap 2: DC Machines 52
The Compounded DC Motor.
The effective shunt field current in the compounded DC motor given by:
N SE FAR
I IF
*
F IA
NF NF
NSE = winding turn per pole on series winding
NF = winding turn per pole on shunt winding
Chap 2: DC Machines 53
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively
Compounded DC Motor
The cumulatively compounded motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt
motor (whose flux is constant) but a lower starting torque than a series motor
(whose entire flux is proportional to armature current).
It combines the best features of both the shunt and the series motors. Like a
series motor, it has extra torque for starting; like a shunt motor, it does not over
speed at no load.
At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so the motor behaves
approximately as a shunt dc motor.
As the load gets very large, the series flux becomes quite important and the
torque speed curve begins to look like a series motors characteristic.
Chap 2: DC Machines 54
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Cumulatively
Compounded DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 55
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Differently
Compounded DC Motor
This instability is much worse than that of a shunt motor with armature reaction,
and make it unsuitable for any application.
Chap 2: DC Machines 56
Speed Control in the Cumulatively Compounded DC
Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 57
DC Motor Starter
In order for a dc motor to function properly on the job, it must have some special
control and protection equipment associated with it. The purposes of this
equipment are:
1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in the equipment
Chap 2: DC Machines 58
DC Motor Problem on Starting
DC motor must be protected from physical damage during the starting period.
At starting conditions, the motor is not turning, and so EA = 0 V.
Since the internal resistance of a normal dc motor is very low, a very high
current flows, hence the starting current will be dangerously high, could
severely damage the motor, even if they last for only a moment.
Consider the dc shunt motor: VT E A VT
IA
RA RA
When EA = 0 and RA is very small, then the current IA will be very high.
Chap 2: DC Machines 59
Inserting a Starting Resistor in Series & Manual DC Motor
Chap 2: DC Machines 60
DC Motor Efficiency Calculations
Chap 2: DC Machines 61
DC Motor Efficiency Calculations
Electrical or Copper losses : Copper losses are the losses that occur in the
Armature and field windings of the machine. The copper losses for the
armature and field winding are given by :
Armature Loss PA = IA2RA Must consider RS for series
Field Loss PF = IF RF
2
and compound DC Motors
PA = Armature Losses
PF = Field Circuit Losses
Brush Losses : The brush drop loss is the power loss across the contact
potential at the brushes of the machines. It is given by the equation:
PBD = VBDIA
Chap 2: DC Machines 62
DC Motor Efficiency Calculations
Magnetic or core loss : These are the hysteresis and eddy current losses
occuring in the metal of the motor.
Stray losses (or Miscellaneous losses) : These are other losses that cannot be
placed in one of the previous categories. (Is about 1% of full load-RULE OF
THUMB) [[pg 318,Electric Machinery and Transformers, BHAG S. GURU] and [pg
525, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, STEPHEN J. CHAPMAN]
Chap 2: DC Machines 63
DC Motor Efficiency Calculations
Rotational losses is when the mechanical losses, Core losses and Stray losses
are lumped together. [pg. 193 Electromechanical Energy Devices and Power
System, ZIA A. ZAMAYEE & JUAN L. BALA JR.]
Motor efficiency :
Poutput
X 100%
Pinput
Pinput Plosses
X 100%
Pinput
Chap 2: DC Machines 64
Speed Regulation
The speed regulation is a measure of the change speed from no-load to full
load. The percent speed regulation is defined
nl fl
Speed Regulation (SR): X 100%
fl
or
nl fl
X 100%
fl
+Ve SR means that the motor speed will decrease when the load on its shaft is
increased.
-Ve SR means that the motor speed increases with increasing load.
Chap 2: DC Machines 65
DC Generators
DC generators are dc machines used as generator. There are five major types of
dc generators, classified according to the manner in which their field flux is
produced:
Separately excited generator: In separately excited generator, the field flux is derived
from a separately power source independent of the generator itself.
Shunt generator: In a shunt generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the field
circuit directly across the terminals of the generators.
Series generator: In a series generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the field
circuit in series with the armature of the generator.
Chap 2: DC Machines 66
DC Generators
Chap 2: DC Machines 67
Equivalent Circuit of DC Generators
Chap 2: DC Machines 68
Separately Excited Generator
IL I A
A separately excited DC generator is a generator whose field current is supplied by
a separately external DC voltage source
Chap 2: DC Machines 69
The Terminal Characteristic of A Separately Excited
DC Generator
The terminal characteristic of a separately excited dc generator (a) with and (b) without compensating
windings (EA = K)
For DC generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage and line
current. The terminal voltage is VT = EA IARA (IA = IL)
Chap 2: DC Machines 70
The Terminal Characteristic of A Separately Excited
DC Generator
When the load is supplied by the generator is increased, IL (and therefore IA)
increase. As the armature current increase, the IARA drop increase, so the
terminal voltage of the generator falls. (Figure (a) PREVIOUS SLIDE)
Chap 2: DC Machines 71
Control of Terminal Voltage
VT = EA IARA
If EA increases, VT will increase, and if EA decreases, VT will decreases. Since the
internal generated voltage, EA = K, there are two possible ways to control the
voltage of this generator:
2. Change the field current. If RF is decreased, then the field current increases
(IF =VF/RF ). Therefore, the flux in the machine increases. As the flux rises,
EA= K must rise too, so VT = EA IARA increases.
Chap 2: DC Machines 72
The Shunt DC Generator
A shunt DC generator is a DC generator that supplies its own field current by
having its field connected directly across the terminals of the machine.
I A IF IL
VT E A I A RA
V
I F T
RF
Chap 2: DC Machines 73
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt Generator
Assume the DC generator has no load connected to it and that the prime mover
starts to turn the shaft of the generator. The voltage buildup in a DC generator
depends on the presence of a residual flux in the poles of the generator.
EA, then VT increase and cause further increase IF, which further increasing
the flux and so on.
Chap 2: DC Machines 74
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt Generator
Voltage buildup
occurred in discrete
steps
EA may be a volt or
two appear at the
terminal during
start-up
Chap 2: DC Machines 75
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt Generator
Several causes for the voltage to fail to build up during starting which are :
Residual magnetism. If there is no residual flux in the poles, there is no
Internal generated voltage, EA = 0V and the voltage will never build up.
Critical resistance
Chap 2: DC Machines 76
Voltage Buildup in A Shunt Generator
The direction of rotation of the generator may have been reversed, or the
connections of the field may have been reversed. In either case, the
residual flux produces an internal generated voltage EA. The voltage EA
produce a field current which produces a flux opposing the residual flux,
instead of adding to it.
Under these conditions, the flux actually decreases below res and no
voltage can ever build up.
Chap 2: DC Machines 77
The Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Generator
However, when VT decreases, the field current IF in the machine decreases with it.
This causes the flux in the machine to decrease; decreasing EA. Decreasing EA causes
a further decrease in the terminal voltage, VT = EA - IARA
Chap 2: DC Machines 78
Voltage Control for Shunt DC Generator
Changing the field resistor is the principal method used to control terminal
voltage in real shunt generators. If the field resistor RF is decreased, then the
field current IF = VT/RF increases.
Chap 2: DC Machines 79
The Series DC Generator
Chap 2: DC Machines 80
Terminal Characteristic of a Series Generator
The magnetization curve of a series DC generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other generator. At no load, however, there is no field
current, so VT is reduced to a very small level given by the residual flux in the
machine. As the load increases, the field current rises, so EA rises rapidly. The IA (RA
+ RS) drop goes up too, but at first the increase in EA goes up more rapidly than the
IA(RA + RS) drop rises, so VT increases. After a while, the machine approaches
saturation, and EA becomes almost constant. At that point, the resistive drop is the
predominant effect, and VT starts to fall.
Chap 2: DC Machines 81
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
Chap 2: DC Machines 82
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator
N SE FAR
I *
F IF IA
NF NF
Chap 2: DC Machines 83
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator
The other voltage and current relationships for this generator are
I A IF IL
VT E A I A ( RA RS )
VT
IF
RF
Chap 2: DC Machines 84
The Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generator
Chap 2: DC Machines 85
The Terminal Characteristic of a Cumulatively
Compounded DC Generator
When the load on the generator is increased, the load current IL also increases.
Since IA = IF + IL, the armature current IA increases too. At this point two effects
occur in the generator:
1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well. This tends to
cause a decrease in the terminal voltage, VT = EA IA (RA + RS).
Chap 2: DC Machines 86
Voltage Control of Cumulatively Compounded
DC Generator
Chap 2: DC Machines 87
Analysis of Cumulatively Compounded DC
Generators
The equivalent shunt field current Ieq due to the effects of the series field and
armature reaction is given by
N SE FAR
I eq IA
NF NF
The total effective shunt field current is I F* I F I eq
where,
NSE = series field turns
NF = shunt field turns
FAR = armature force
IA = armature current
Chap 2: DC Machines 88
Field Resistance
IA (RA + RS)
Chap 2: DC Machines 89
The Differentially Compounded DC Generator
I A IL IF
VT
IF
RF
VT E A I A ( RA RF )
Chap 2: DC Machines 90
The Differentially Compounded DC Generator
The net magnetomotive force is
And the equivalent shunt field current due to the series field and armature
reaction is given by :
N SE FAR
I eq IA
NF NF
The total effective shunt field current in this machine is
I I F I eq
*
F
N SE FAR
or I IF
*
F IA
NF NF
Chap 2: DC Machines 91
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
Two effects occur in the terminal characteristic of a differentially compounded
DC generator are
1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well. This increase
tends to cause the terminal voltage to decrease VT.
Since both effects tend to decrease VT, the voltage drop drastically as the load
is increased on the generator as shown in next slide
Chap 2: DC Machines 92
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
Chap 2: DC Machines 93
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
The techniques available for adjusting terminal voltage are exactly the same as
those for shunt and cumulatively compounded DC generator:
Chap 2: DC Machines 94
A long journey start with a
single step.
- Confucious
Chap 2: DC Machines 95