Modifications to Conventional Water Treatment Train

Case A: Low Turbidity (~ 5-10 NTU) water

Raw water source: Lake Water

Coagulant/polymer addition Rapid Mixing Rapid Sand Filtration

In-Line Filtration

Case B: Medium turbidity (~ 10 20 NTU) water

Raw water source: 1) River water in dry season; 2) Autumn turnover

Coagulant/polymer addition Rapid Mixing Flocculation

Dual Media Filtration

Direct Filtration

Case C: Applicable to all waters from low to high turbidity

Coagulant (high dose) and Soda addition Rapid Mixing Flocculation
(Sweep Floc formation)

Rapid Sand Filtration Secondary Sedimentation

Sweep Floc Formation
 Chlorination

Chlorination helps to achieve multiple objectives in water treatment,

1. Removal or color, taste and odor (caused by the presence of dissolved organic carbon)

2. Removal of ammonia (present in water due to anthropogenic pollution)

3. Microbial disinfection of water

Application of Chlorine to Water:

1. Chlorine Gas: Cl 2 (g)

Cl 2 (aq )

Cl 2 (aq) H 2 O HOCl H Cl
HOCl
H OCl

pK 7.5

2. Sodium Hypochlorite: NaOCl Na OCl

HOCl
OCl H

3. Bleaching Powder: Ca (OCl)Cl Ca 2 OCl Cl

HOCl
OCl H


Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L as Cl2) = [HOCl] [OCl ] .71000
Oxidation States of Chlorine: -1, 0, +1

Oxidation states of Carbon: -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, + 4

Inorganic carbon is almost exclusively in +4 oxidation state

Organic carbon is almost exclusively in oxidation states lower than +4

Free chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent.

It can oxidize organic carbon present in water, i.e., increase its oxidation state (subject to
kinetic limitations).

Sometimes (rarely) it completely mineralizes organic carbon to inorganic carbon (i.e., +4

oxidation state).

Some cations like Fe2+, Mn2+ etc. are also oxidized by chlorine.
 Chlorine Demand of Natural Water

In pure water

Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L)
In water with
Instantaneous chlorine
demand

45o 45o

Applied Chlorine (mg/L) Applied Chlorine (mg/L)

In water with
Ammonia
Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

NH 4
NH 3 (aq ) H

pK 9.5

Breakpoint NH 4 OCl
NH 2 Cl H 2 O Monochlora mine Formation
Chlorination
FR NH 2 Cl OCl
NHCl 2 OH

Dichlorami ne Formation

CR 45o NHCl 2 OCl

NCl3 OH
Trichloram ine Formation
CR
3OCl- 2 NH 4 3Cl N 2 2H 3H 2 O Breakpoint Chlorinati on
Applied Chlorine (mg/L)

These reaction take ~30 minutes to complete

 Chlorine Demand of Natural Water

In Water with both Ammonia

and
Instantaneous Chlorine Demand
Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Instantaneous
Chlorine Breakpoint
Demand Chlorination
FR
CR 45o
CR

Applied Chlorine (mg/L)

Instantaneous Chlorine Demand

As soon as chlorine is added to water, it reacts with organic matter (and also some inorganic
matter) present in water.

These reactions occur in a matter of minutes and results in chlorine being reduced. The taste,
color and odor causing compounds present in water are oxidized during this time.

Generally 1 mg/L chlorine is added per mg/L BOD5 present in the water to care of the demand by
organic compounds present in water

If oxidisable inorganic ions are present (i.e., Fe2+ and Mn2+ ions, etc.), additional chlorine will be
required to satisfy the demand from these ions.

Satisfying instantaneous chlorine demand of the water will take care of the taste, color and odor
problems in most cases.

Example (odor causing compounds):

An odor (fecal odor) causing compound, can be partly oxidized by chlorine

to compounds which do not smell
3-methylindole
(Skatole)
Example (Taste and Odor causing compounds):

These compounds (excreted by algae in water)

impart earthy / grassy taste to water

Geosmin 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB)

Example (Taste and Color causing compounds): Fe2+ ions, Mn2+ ions

Example (Color causing compounds):

Fulvic acids impart yellow/brown color to

water. Such compounds can be partly
oxidized by chlorine to compounds which are
colorless (or at least have less color)
How much Chlorine must be added to water ??

Instantaneous chlorine demand of water must be satisfied

Breakpoint chlorination must be achieved, such that Free Residual Chlorine can exist in water

Sufficient Free Residual Chlorine must be present in water for effective disinfection and
maintenance of free chlorine residual in the water distribution system
Free Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

Instantaneous
Chlorine Breakpoint
Demand Chlorination
FR
CR 45o
CR

Applied Chlorine (mg/L)

How much Free Residual Chlorine is required for effective disinfection ??

Kinetics of Disinfection
Concept of Log Removals:
N
Chicks Law: Log K.t N
No Log o 1; 1 - Log Removal, i.e., 90 % removal
N
No = Number of micro-organisms at time, t = 0
N
N = number of microorganisms at time t Log o 2; 2 - Log Removal, i.e., 99 % removal
N
K = Constant dependent on,
N
1. Type of disinfectant Log o 3; 3 - Log Removal, i.e., 99.9 % removal
N
2. Concentration of disinfectant
3. Type of microorganism
and so on.

Chick-Watsons Law: Simplified Chick-Watsons Law

N
.C .t
n
Log Assuming n = 1 in Chick-Watsons Law,
No

Coefficient of specific lethality, dependent on N

Log o ' .(C.t )
1. Type of disinfectant N
2. Type of microorganism
Need to know, vales, so that the
C = Concentration of the disinfectant Ct value corresponding to a desired
n = constant dependent upon log-removal may be calculated for
1. Type of disinfectant the specified microorganism-
2. Type of microorganism disinfectant combination
 Disinfectant of interest: Free chlorine

Target microorganism??
Many microorganisms cause water borne diseases,

Bacteria: Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli (certain strains),

Some Examples: Shigella, Salmonella typhi,

Viruses: Poliovirus, Hepatitis A virus, Astrovirus, Calicivirus,

Enteric Adenovirus, and Parvovirus

Protozoa: Entamoeba hystolytica, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum

Giardia lamblia exists as

dormant microbial cysts in
contaminated water. These are
the most difficult to kill. Hence
if the objective of disinfection is
to target Giardia lamblia, then
we may be reasonably sure that
all other pathogens in water are
also inactivated.
CT values (in mg/L-min) of the removal of Giardia lamblia cysts at various pH values (T = 20oC)
(using free chlorine as disinfectant)

1- Log 2-Log 3-Log

pH = 6 14 28 42
pH = 7 20 39 59
pH = 8 30 59 89
pH = 9 43 86 129

Why are the CT values pH dependent??

Free chlorine consists of two species, [HOCl] and [OCl-]. Among these, [HOCl] is by far more
effective for disinfection. In fact, disinfection by [OCl-] may be neglected in comparison to that
by [HOCl]

Concept of CT Credit
Bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms are particles. Hence they are removed substantially
by particle removal processes, i.e., coagulation-flocculation and filtration commonly used in
water treatment. It may be assumed that 2.5-log removal of Giardia lamblia cysts occur during
conventional water treatment, while 2-log removal may be assumed in case of direct filtration.
Hence, if 5-log removal of Giardia lamblia cysts is desired during conventional water
treatment, the disinfection system should be designed corresponding to a CT value of only
2.5.
Example Problem

Raw water obtained from a river was put through the conventional water treatment processes,
i.e., primary sedimentation, coagulant addition, rapid mixing, flocculation, secondary
sedimentation and rapid sand filtration. The water quality after rapid sand filtration was as
follows,
Turbidity: < 1 NTU;
BOD5: 3 mg/L; (imparts color, odor and taste to water)
TKN: 2 mg/L (as N); (ammonia nitrogen)
pH: 7.5

This water is to be chlorinated using Hypo (NaOCl) solution. A 10 M Hypo stock solution
is available for this purpose. Enough chlorine must be added to water such that the chlorination
objectives are satisfied. The chlorination objectives are as follows,

1. BOD5 should be oxidized as far as possible, such that color, taste and odor of water is
removed.
2. All TKN in water should be converted to N2 (i.e., breakpoint chlorination), such that
free chlorine (HOCl + OCl-) can exist in water.
3. Free chlorine residual in finished water should be 2 mg/L as Cl2. This is required as a
check against re-contamination of water in the distribution system.
4. 5-Log removal of Giardia cysts is desired.

Based on the above information, you are required to find out the following,
1. How much of the Hypo stock solution must be added per 1 liter of water for
fulfilling the chlorination objectives.

2. What is the required contact time (t) after chlorine addition to ensure the required
Log-kill of Giardia cysts.

Given:
1. 1 mg/L chlorine is required to completely oxidize 1 mg/L BOD5.
2. 2.0-Log removal of Giardia cysts occur during conventional treatment.
3. Ct for 2-Log kill of Giardia cysts at pH 7 using free chlorine is 39 mg/L-min.
4. OCl- is totally ineffective in killing microorganisms.

Solution:
Instantaneous chlorine demand
1 mg/L chlorine (as Cl2) is required per 1 mg/L BOD5
BOD5 = 3 mg/L
Hence instantaneous chlorine demand = 3 mg/L chlorine as Cl2

Breakpoint chlorination demand

NH 4 concentration in water to be oxidized is 2 mg/L (as N).

Thus, NH 4 concentration in water = (2/14000) = 1.428 x 10-4 moles/L

The relevant equation: 3HOCl 2 NH 4 3Cl N 2 3H 2 O 5H

 Therefore, amount of free chlorine required for ammonia oxidation
= (3/2).(1.428 x 10-4) = 2.143 x 10-4 moles/L = 15.21 mg/L (as Cl2)

Chlorine Demand (up to breakpoint) = 15.21 + 3 = 18.21 mg/L (as Cl2)

Required free chlorine residual = 2 mg/L (as Cl2)

Therefore, total chlorine requirement = 3 + 15.21 + 2 = 20.21 mg/L (as Cl2)

Chlorine content of the stock Hypo solution = 10.(71000) = 7.1 x 105 mg/L as Cl2

Therefore, amount of Hypo addition required per liter of water

20.21
=
5
.1000 0.0285 mL
7.1x10

Disinfection objective: 5-Log kill of Giardia cysts required.

2-Log kill achieved through conventional treatment (CT credit)
Therefore, additional 3-Log kill is required through disinfection

Fraction of HOCl in free chlorine = [H ]

[K ] [H ]
10 7
Therefore, fraction of HOCl at pH 7 = F7.0 = 7 0.759
10 10 7.5
10 7.5
fraction of HOCl at pH 7.5 = F7.5 = 0.500
10 7.5 10 7.5
Using simplified Chick-Watson Law,

At pH 7.0, 2 (.F7.0 ).(C.t ) ; Ct = 39; i.e., 6.76x102

At pH 7.0, 3 (6.76x10 2 ).F7.0 .(C.t ) ; i.e., Ct 59

At pH 7.5, 3 (6.76x10 2 ).F7.5 .(Ct) ; i.e., Ct 89

Therefore, required contact time = 95/2 = 47.5 minutes for obtaining a total 5-Log removal (2-Log
removal by conventional treatment + 3-Log kill by disinfection) of Giardia Cysts.

Importance of Free Chlorine Residual

Actual chlorine consumption for inactivation of microorganisms is negligibly small. However,
maintenance of free chlorine residual for the required time (i.e., providing required CT) is
essential for achieving the required level of disinfection.

The free chlorine residual remains in water (it is not removed) as a insurance against re-
contamination of water in the distribution system.

In fact, maintenance of a free chlorine residual of at least 1 mg/L at the farthest end of the
distribution network is recommended for effective public health protection from water borne
diseases.
Disinfection by-products (DBPs)

Addition products of chlorine with organic matter present in water

Trihalomethanes: 4 kinds
Haloacetic acids: 9 kinds

These are the most common chlorination by-products, though many others are also formed.

Some of the DBPs are carcinogenic

Risk assessment: Immediate risk of illness from water borne diseases versus long term risk
of cancer

Of course, best option will be to prevent formation of DBPs. For this, DBPs precursors, i.e.,
dissolved organic matter must be destroyed or removed from water before chlorination. Another
option will be to use alternative disinfectants.

Alternative Disinfectants
Ozone
ClO2
UV

Big disadvantage: they do not leave behind any residual for protection against re-
contamination of water in the distribution system.
 Underground Storage Tank

Inlet Pump
1m Overflow
Maximum Storage Outlet
Ground Level Ground Level

5m Minimum Storage
1.5 m

Water demand = 11.75 MLD

Peak water demand = 19.59 MLD
Total storage capacity (in UG and OH tanks combined) = 4.27 ML

Minimum detention time in UG tank = tmin = 50 minutes = Vmin/Qmax

Vmin = tmin . Qmax = (50/60)(19.59/24) = 0.68 ML

Let maximum storage (Vmax) = 2.27 ML = 2270 m3

Let maximum depth of storage (dmax) = 5 m; Freeboard = 1 m

Surface area = 2270/5 = 454 m2; Length = 22 m; Breadth = 21 m

Minimum depth of storage (dmin) = 680/454 = 1.5 m