RESPIRATORY

PHYSIOLOGY
Components of the Upper
Respiratory Tract

Figure 10.2
Alveoli
and
Respirat
ory
Membra
ne
Microscopic Anatomy of Lobule of Lungs
Functions of the respiratory system

Moving air to the exchange

surface of the lungs
Gas exchange between air
and circulating blood
Protection of respiratory
surfaces (from dehydration,
temperature changes, and defending the
RS from invading pathogens)

Production of sound
Provision for olfactory
sensations
 Conducting Zone
All the structures air
passes through before
reaching the
respiratory zone.
Function: Insert fig. 16.5
Warms and humidifies
inspired air.
Filters and cleans:
Mucus secreted to
trap particles in the
inspired air.
Mucus moved by
cilia to be
expectorated.
 Respiratory Zone

Region of gas
exchange
between air
and blood.
Includes
respiratory
bronchioles
and alveolar
sacs.
Respiratory Membrane
This air-blood barrier is
composed of:
Alveolar and capillary
walls
Their fused basal laminas
Alveolar walls:
Are a single layer of type I
epithelial cells
Permit gas exchange by
simple diffusion
Type II cells secrete
surfactant
 PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure
Pressures
Alveolar (intrapulmonary (pressure)
Intrapleural pressure

Boyles Law - More volume=less

pressure/Less volume=more pressure

Daltons Law
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own
pressure as if no other gases were present
Pressure of a specific gas is partial pressure Px
Total preassure is the sum of all the partial pressures
Atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg) = PN2 +
PO2 + PH2O + PCO2 + Pother gases
Each gas diffuses across a permeable membrane
from the are where its partial pressure is greater to
the area where its partial pressure is less
The greater the difference, the faster the rate
of diffusion
 Pulmonary ventilation
Respiration (gas exchange) steps
1. Pulmonary ventilation/
breathing
Inhalation and exhalation
Exchange of air between
atmosphere and alveoli
2. External (pulmonary) respiration
Exchange of gases between
alveoli and blood
3. Internal (tissue) respiration
Exchange of gases between
systemic capillaries and tissue
cells
Supplies cellular respiration
(makes ATP)
Partial Pressures of Gases in Inhaled
Air
PN2 =0.786 x 760mm Hg = 597.4 mmHg

PO2 =0.209 x 760mm Hg = 158.8 mmHg

PH2O =0.004 x 760mm Hg = 3.0 mmHg

PCO2 =0.0004 x 760mm Hg = 0.3 mmHg

Pother gases =0.0006 x 760mm Hg = 0.5 mmHg

TOTAL = 760.0 mmHg

Henrys law
Quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is
proportional to the partial pressures of the gas
and its solubility
Higher partial pressure of a gas over a liquid
and higher solubility, more of the gas will stay
in solution
Much more CO2 is dissolved in blood than O2
because CO2 is 24 times more soluble
Even though the air we breathe is mostly N2,
very little dissolves in blood due to low
solubility
Decompression sickness (bends)
 External Respiration in Lungs
Oxygen
Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air
(PO2 105 mmHg) into blood of
pulmonary capillaries (PO2 40
mmHg)
Diffusion continues until PO2 of
pulmonary capillary blood matches
PO2 of alveolar air
Small amount of mixing with blood
from conducting portion of
respiratory system drops PO2 of
blood in pulmonary veins to 100
mmHg
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses from Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
deoxygenated blood in pulmonary
capillaries (PCO2 45 mmHg) into
alveolar air (PCO2 40 mmHg)
Continues until of PCO2 blood
Mechanics of Breathing
MechanicalVentilation)
(Pulmonary process
Depends on volume
changes in the
thoracic cavity
Volume changes lead
to pressure changes,
which lead to equalize
pressure of flow of
gases
2 phases
Inspiration flow
of air into lung
Expiration air
leaving lung
Moving air in and out

During inspiration
(inhalation), the
diaphragm and intercostal
muscles contract.
During exhalation, these
muscles relax. The
diaphragm domes
upwards.
 External air is pulled
Inspiration
into the lungs due to
an increase in
intrapulmonary
volume

Inspiration
Diaphragm contracts
-> increased thoracic
volume vertically.
Intercostals contract,
expanding rib cage ->
increased thoracic
volume laterally.
Active
 Expiration
Passive process dependent up on
natural lung elasticity
As muscles relax, air is pushed out of
the lungs
Forced expiration can occur mostly
by contracting internal intercostal
muscles to depress the rib cage

Expiration
Due to recoil of elastic lungs -
Passive.
Less volume -> pressure
within alveoli is above
atmospheric pressure -> air
leaves lungs.
Note: Residual volume of air is
always left behind, so alveoli do
not collapse.
Air movement
Movement of air depends upon
Boyles Law
Pressure and volume inverse relationship
Volume depends on movement of
diaphragm and ribs

Normal pressure within the pleural space is

always negative (intrapleural pressure)
Differences in lung and pleural space pressures
keep lungs from collapsing
Respiratory Sounds

Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

Bronchial sounds produced by air rushing
through trachea and bronchi
Vesicular breathing sounds soft sounds of air
filling alveoli
 OxygenRespiration
External movement into the blood
The alveoli always has more oxygen than the
blood
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of
lower concentration
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen

Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood

Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the
alveoli
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
 Inhalation lungs must expand,
increasing lung volume,
Inhalation/ inspiration
decreasing pressure below
atmospheric pressure
Inhalation is active
Contraction of
Diaphragm most important
muscle of inhalation
Flattens, lowering dome when
contracted
Responsible for 75% of air
entering lungs during normal
quiet breathing
External intercostals
Contraction elevates ribs
25% of air entering lungs
during normal quiet breathing
Exhalation/ expiration

Pressure in lungs greater than atmospheric pressure

Normally passive muscle relax instead of contract
Based on elastic recoil of chest wall and lungs from elastic fibers
and surface tension of alveolar fluid
Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped
External intercostals relax and ribs drop down
Exhalation only active during forceful breathing
Airflow
Air pressure differences drive airflow
3 other factors affect rate of airflow and ease of
pulmonary ventilation
Surface tension of alveolar fluid
Causes alveoli to assume smallest possible diameter
Accounts for 2/3 of lung elastic recoil
Prevents collapse of alveoli at exhalation
Lung compliance
High compliance means lungs and chest wall expand easily
Related to elasticity and surface tension
Airway resistance
Larger diameter airway has less resistance
Regulated by diameter of bronchioles & smooth muscle tone
 Lung volumes and capacities
Minute ventilation
(MV) = total volume
of air inhaled and
exhaled each minute
Normal healthy adult
averages 12 breaths
per minute moving
about 500 ml of air in
and out of lungs (tidal
volume)
MV = 12 breaths/min
x 500 ml/ breath = 6
liters/ min
 Lung Volumes
Only about 70% of tidal volume reaches
respiratory zone
Other 30% remains in conducting zone
Anatomic (respiratory) dead space
conducting airways with air that does not
undergo respiratory gas exchange
Alveolar ventilation rate volume of air
per minute that actually reaches
respiratory zone
Inspiratory reserve volume taking a
very deep breath
Expiratory reserve volume inhale
normally and exhale forcefully
Residual volume air remaining
after expiratory reserve volume
exhaled
Vital capacity = inspiratory reserve
volume + tidal volume + expiratory
reserve volume
Total lung capacity = vital capacity +
residual volume
Changes in
Thoracic Volumes
Factors Influencing Pulmonary
Ventilation

Airway Resistance

Surface Tension

Lung Compliance
Respiratory Volumes

Tidal volume (TV) air that moves into and

out of the lungs with each breath (approximately
500 ml)
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) air that
can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume
(21003200 ml)
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) air that
can be evacuated from the lungs after a tidal
expiration (10001200 ml)
Residual volume (RV) air left in the lungs
after maximal forced expiration (1200 ml)
Respiratory Capacities

Inspiratory capacity (IC) total amount of air

that can be inspired after a tidal expiration (IRV +
TV)
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
amount of air remaining in the lungs after a tidal
expiration
(RV + ERV)
Vital capacity (VC) the total amount of
exchangeable air (TV + IRV + ERV)
Total lung capacity (TLC) sum of all lung
volumes (approximately 6000 ml in males)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Dead Space

The volume of the airways

that does not participate in
gas exchange
Anatomical dead space
volume of the conducting
respiratory passages (150
ml)
Functional dead space
alveoli that cease to act in
gas exchange due to
collapse or obstruction
Physiological dead
space sum of alveolar
and anatomical dead
spaces
 Nonrespiratory Air Movements

Caused by reflexes or
voluntary actions
Examples
Cough and sneeze
clears lungs of
debris
Laughing
Crying
Yawn
Hiccup
 Daltons Law and partial
pressure
Individual gases in a
mixture exert pressure
proportional to their Henrys Law and the
abundance Relationship between
Diffusion between liquid Solubility and Pressure
and gases (Henrys law)
The amount of gas in
solution is directly
proportional to their
partial pressure
Diffusion and respiratory
function

Gas exchange across

respiratory membrane
is efficient due to:
Differences in partial
pressure
Small diffusion distance
Lipid-soluble gases
Large surface area of all
alveoli
Coordination of blood
flow and airflow
Gas Transport in the Blood: Oxygen

2% in plasma
98% in hemoglobin (Hb)
Blood holds O2 reserve

Carried mainly by RBCs,

bound to hemoglobin
The amount of oxygen
hemoglobin can carried
is dependent upon:
PO2
pH
temperature
DPG
Hemoglobin Transport of Oxygen
Hemoglobin Saturation Curve
2% in plasma
98% in hemoglobin (Hb)
Blood holds O2 reserve

4 binding sites per Hb

molecule
98% saturated in alveolar
arteries
Resting cell PO2 = 40 mmHg
Working cell PO2 = 20 mmHg
More unloaded with more need
75% in reserve at normal
activity
 The Effect of pH and Temperature on
Hemoglobin Saturation

Temperature, pH, PCO2, and DPG

Increase of temperature, PCO2, and DPG and decrease of pH :
Decrease hemoglobins affinity for oxygen
Enhance oxygen unloading from the blood
Decreases of temperature, PCO2, and DPG and the increase of pH act in the opposite manner
These parameters are all high in systemic capillaries where oxygen unloading is the goal
A Functional Comparison of Fetal and Adult
Hemoglobin

Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin
Hb-F can carry up to 30% more oxygen
Maternal bloods oxygen readily transferred to fetal blood
Summary of gas transport

Driven by differences
in partial pressure
Oxygen enters blood
at lungs and leaves at
tissues
Carbon dioxide enters
at tissues and leaves at
lungs
At the Lungs at tkiva
Factors Influencing Gas Transport and
Hemoglobin Saturation
Internal Respiration

Oxygen
Oxygen diffuses from systemic capillary blood (PO2 100 mmHg) into tissue
cells (PO2 40 mmHg) cells constantly use oxygen to make ATP
Blood drops to 40 mmHg by the time blood exits the systemic capillaries
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses from tissue cells (PCO2 45 mmHg) into systemic
capillaries (PCO2 40 mmHg) cells constantly make carbon dioxide
PCO2 blood reaches 45 mmHg
At rest, only about 25% of the available oxygen is used. Deoxygenated
blood would retain 75% of its oxygen capacity

Oxygen transport
Only about 1.5% dissolved in plasma - 98.5% bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells
Heme portion of hemoglobin contains 4 iron atoms each can bind
one O2 molecule - Oxyhemoglobin
Only dissolved portion can diffuse out of blood into cells
Oxygen must be able to bind and dissociate from heme
Rate of Pulmonary and Systemic Gas
Depends on
Exchange
Partial pressures of gases
Alveolar PO2 must be
higher than blood PO2 for
diffusion to occur
problem with increasing
altitude
Surface area available for
gas exchange
Diffusion distance
Molecular weight and
solubility of gases
O2 has a lower molecular
weight and should diffuse
faster than CO2 except for
its low solubility - when
diffusion is slow, hypoxia
occurs before
hypercapnia
 Higher the PO2, More O2
combines with Hb Relationship between
Fully saturated completely Hemoglobin and
converted to oxyhemoglobin
Percent saturation expresses
Oxygen Partial
average saturation of hemoglobin Pressure
with oxygen
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation
curve
In pulmonary capillaries, O2
loads onto Hb
In tissues, O2 is not held and
unloaded
75% may still remain in
deoxygenated blood (reserve)
Other factors affecting affinity of
Hemoglobin for oxygen
Each makes sense if you keep in
mind that metabolically active
tissues need O2, and produce acids,
CO2, and heat as wastes
Bohr Effect

As acidity increases (pH

decreases), affinity of Hb
for O2 decreases
Increasing acidity
enhances unloading
Shifts curve to right
PCO2
Also shifts curve to right
As PCO2 rises, Hb unloads
oxygen more easily
Low blood pH can result
from high PCO2
Temperature Changes

Within limits, as
temperature
increases, more
oxygen is released
from Hb
During hypothermia,
more oxygen remains
bound
2,3-bisphosphoglycerate
BPG formed by red
blood cells during
glycolysis
Helps unload oxygen
by binding with Hb
 Carbon dioxide transport Dissolved CO2
Smallest amount, about 7%
Carbamino compounds
About 23% combines with amino acids including
those in Hb
Carbaminohemoglobin
Bicarbonate ions
70% transported in plasma as HCO3-
Enzyme carbonic anhydrase forms carbonic
acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into H+ and
HCO3-

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- Chloride shift

HCO3- accumulates inside RBCs as they pick up
carbon dioxide
Some diffuses out into plasma
To balance the loss of negative ions, chloride (Cl-)
moves into RBCs from plasma
Reverse happens in lungs Cl- moves out as moves
back into RBCs

7% dissolved in plasma
70% carried as carbonic acid
buffer system
23% bound to hemoglobin
carbaminohemoglobin
Plasma transport
In the alveolus
The respiratory surface
is made up of the alveoli
and capillary walls.
The walls of the
capillaries and the
alveoli may share the
same membrane.
Air entering the lungs
contains more oxygen
and less carbon dioxide
than the blood that flows
in the pulmonary
capillaries.
How do these differences
in concentrations assist
gas exchange?
Oxygen transport

Hemoglobin binds to
oxygen that diffuses
into the blood stream.

Carbon dioxide transport

Carbon dioxide can
dissolve in plasma, and
about 70% forms
bicarbonate ions.
Some carbon dioxide
can bind to hemoglobin
for transport.
 Respiratory Membrane
(Air-Blood Barrier)
Smallest branches of the
bronchi
All but the smallest branches
have reinforcing cartilage
Terminal bronchioles end in
alveoli

razmjena gasa
Gas crosses the respiratory
membrane by diffusion
Oxygen enters the blood
Carbon dioxide enters the
alveoli
Macrophages add protection
Surfactant coats gas-
exposed alveolar surfaces

Figure 13.5a
Events of Respiration

Pulmonary ventilation moving air in and out of

the lungs
External respiration gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
Respiratory gas transport transport of oxygen
and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
Internal respiration gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
 Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
An opposite reaction to what occurs in
the lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
tissue to blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood into
tissue
Oxygen transport in the blood
Inside red blood cells attached to
hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin
[HbO2])
A small amount is carried dissolved in
the plasma
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Most is transported in the plasma
as bicarbonate ion (HCO3)
A small amount is carried inside red
blood cells on hemoglobin, but at
different binding sites than those of
oxygen
Control of Respiration
refleksna kontrola
Medullary respiratory center -
Respiratory rhythmicity
centers set pace
Dorsal respiratory center
(DRC) - INSPIRACIJA
Ventral respiratory center
(VRC) - FORSIRANA
EKSPIRACIJA

Pontine center
Apneustic and pneumotaxic
centers: regulate the
respiratory rate and the depth of
respiration in response to sensory
stimuli or input from other centers
in the brain

Hypothalamus
Neural Regulation of Respiration

Activity of respiratory
muscles is transmitted to
the brain by the phrenic
and intercostal nerves
Neural centers that control
rate & depth are located in
the medulla
The pons appears to
smooth out respiratory rate
Normal respiratory rate
(eupnea) is 1215 min.
Hypernia is increased
respiratory rate often due
to extra oxygen needs
Factors Influencing
Respiratory Rate and Depth
Physical factors
Increased body
temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
Volition (conscious
control)
Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth

Chemical factors
Carbon dioxide levels
Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory
chemical for respiration -Increased carbon dioxide increases
respiration - Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the
medulla oblongata

Oxygen levels - Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are

detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery.
Information is sent to the medulla oblongate

Chemoreceptors
located throughout the body (in brain and arteries)
more sensitive to changes in PCO (as sensed through changes in pH).
2
Ventilation is adjusted to maintain arterial PC02 of 40 mm Hg.
Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System

Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus

Lungs are not fully inflated with air until two
weeks after birth
Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface tension
is not present until late in fetal development
and may not be present in premature babies
Cystic Fibrosis

A normal CFTR
protein regulates the
amount of chloride
ions across the cell
membrane of lung
cells.
If the interior of the
cell is too salty,
water is drawn from
lung mucus by
osmosis, causing the
mucus to become
thick and sticky.
Asthma

Chronic inflammation if the bronchiole

passages
Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing,
and wheezing
Aging Effects

Elasticity of lungs
decreases
Vital capacity
decreases
Blood oxygen levels
decrease
Stimulating effects of
carbon dioxide
decreases
More risks of
respiratory tract
infection
Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout Life

Respiration rate:
Newborns 40 to 80 min.
Infants 30 min.
Age 5 25 min.
Adults 12 to 18 min
Rate often increases with old age