WORKING ON YOUR

RESEARCH PROJECT DESIGN

A SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR THE STUDENTS OF BIOLOGY 199

PREPARED BY: PROF. JAY T. DALET

Department of Biology, CAS UP Manila

REFERENCES:
LECTURE NOTES OF DR. GLENN SIA SU, PH.D.
PRACTICE OF RESEARCH BY DR. REBULLIDA ET AL.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY BY GOMEZ AND GOMEZ
RESEARCH DESIGNS IN HTTPS://EXPLORABLE.COM/RESEARCH-DESIGNS
RESEARCH METHODS BY LINDA M. WOOLF
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS AND PROBABILITIES BY MIKE DONNELL
PARAMETRIC VS NON-PARAMETRIC IN HTTP://WWW.CSSE.MONASH.EDU.AU/
BIOLOGY STATISTICS MADE SIMPLE USING EXCEL BY NEIL MILLAR
COURSE MODULE IN BIO 180 GENERAL BIOSTATISTICS BY ATA SANTIAGO, GL SIA SU AND JG VICENCIO
THESIS AND DISSERTATION MANUAL OF FORMAT AND STYLE BY BORJA ET AL. THRU UP MANILA NGOHS
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

A process of obtaining knowledge through the techniques where truth,

accuracy, validity, reliability and other criteria can be ascertained.

A philosophy of science undergirds or strengthens research.

There is a problem or a question to be resolved and methods of arriving at the

answers.
RESEARCH

Aims to find answers to questions through the use of scientific methods.

Types:
Pure or Basic research a research problem arising from a desire to know for the sake of
knowing; academic in nature.
Applied research a research problem arising from a desire to gain knowledge for useful
ends; practical in nature.

Assumes that a statement of the problem exists, and addresses itself to

the task of figuring out how to study that problem.
 RESEARCH

Core research design have 4 elements:

1. An outline, or scheme, showing how the variables under study will be
manipulated &/or observed;
2. Sampling design
3. Data gathering plan
4. Plan for the analysis of collected data
Basic to the formulation of any research problem are questions:
What is that I want to find out, and why?
Answers will determine the choice of research methods and techniques, which is appropriate for the
problem as defined
KINDS OF RESEARCH

Research can be categorized as follows:

Based on who does the research, where and why, it is an academic
research if done for degree requirements or a research project if part of
professional work.
Based on final use, it is either basic or applied research.
Based on design and methodology, there are: surveys, library research,
experimental, exploratory, participatory, action research.
Based on discipline or field of knowledge, they are sociological,
historical, educational, psychological or health research.
RESEARCH

Descriptive Research
Primarily descriptive
Aims to portray selected characteristics of the subject accurately to
study their stability, distribution & occurrence
Provide necessary background for the formulation of a more precise
problem for subsequent more specific study & for the development of
hypotheses.
Provide the means for obtaining initial ideas about the interrelationships
among phenomena, & the types of determinants that might relevantly be
measured.
Exploratory research
Get extensive information about a phenomena, discovering new
dimensions & uncovering additional aspects of it.
Provides an opportunity to study the entire structure of problem under
investigation.
Supplies the needed knowledge & experience that will aid in setting up
fruitful hypotheses for more detailed studies.
RESEARCH

Explanatory-Experimental Research
Cause & effect sequences among phenomena
Seeks to find explanation of phenomena (effects) that one observes around him & their many
possible causes.
Aims to find out why things are as they are.
Illustrate 4 possible relationships
No relationship: If A occurs, B may or may not occur (B does not depend on A in any way)
With relationship: If A occurs, then B will occur.
Positive relationship: If A increases, then B increases
Negative relationship: If A increases, then B decreases

Evaluative research
Aims to assess the consequences of activities undertaken to advance some valued goals.
Seeks to determine whether activity or program being evaluated produced or is now producing
the desired effects.
 Based on nature of problem and its related research goals.
Classified as experimental or non-experimental.
Experimental Research:
Experiment is a method designed for collecting data under
controlled conditions.
In operation when there is actual human interference with
the conditions that determine the phenomenon under
study.
Investigator intentionally manipulates 1 or more of the
independent variables (presumed causes) and observes the
changes in the dependent variables (presumed effects).
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH

Experimental Research:
Independent variables can all be different characteristics or
can refer to different degrees or levels of one or more
independent variables.
Undertaken to determine a particular characteristic of a
population or to compare the effects of 2 or more
procedures called treatments
Absolute experiment common in physical sciences.
Comparative experiment commonly employed in
agriculture, education, psychology, sociology, social work &
other related fields.
 Non-experimental Research
No manipulation of the independent & control variables
by the investigator as is characteristic of
experimentation.
Investigator seeks out those units or subjects which
exhibit the desired effects he is interested in, or who
have already been exposed to the stimuli under study or
to different levels of the independent variable.
Not concerned with analysis of effects of certain
experimental treatments on individuals but focuses on
reconstruction of process that occurred prior to
investigation
Differentiated to clinical non experimental research and
non experimental field research
 Major Classification of Nonexperimental Research:
Case Study, Census & Survey
Case Study: Means of organizing social data with the view to preserve the
wholeness of the social object being studied.
Social object may be person, family, a social group or process or
culture.
A wide range and depth of experience
Advantage: Uniqueness and peculiarities rather than generalizations.
Disadvantage: Time and Cost
Generalizations cannot be made from a few cases to the population.
Census: Complete enumeration involves gathering of data on one or more
characteristics from all the units of the population.
Inherent difficulties in operational procedures
Used to obtain population data and the like at regular intervals of
time.
 Major Classification of Nonexperimental Research:
Survey: Based on a sample of the population considered.
Economize the use of limited resources in gathering data on relatively
large population or universe units such as housheolds, business
establishments, farms, persons & so on.
Results provide estimates of the characteristics of the population, and if
the sample is chosen so that every element of the population has a known
chance of being included in the sample, the precision of the estimates can
be measured in relation to the data that would be obtained if the entire
population were enumerated.
Difference between sample estimates and true values of the
characteristics of the population under study can be minimized by a
proper survey design & by an adequate sample size.
Reliability of estimates of population characteristics made from a sample
survey depends on effective implementation of a sound & operationally
practical survey design or plan.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 1: Identification and Formulation of the Research Problem
Step 2: Determination of the Researchability of the Problem and the Value
of the Research
Step 3: Intimate Acquaintance with the Research Problem
Step 4: Formulation of the Hypotheses & Statement of the Assumption of
the Study
Step 5: Choice of Empirical Variables
Step 6: Determination of Possible Research Obstacles
Step 7: Choice of Research Method
Step 8: Preparation of a Detailed Research Design
Step 9: Collection of Data
Step 10: Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Step 11: Drawing of Conclusions & Recommendations
Step 12: Reporting the Research Findings
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1: Identification and Formulation of the Research Problem

Start with a problem
Define the problem, problem needs to be stated clearly & explicitly.
Start with the question:
What do I want to find out?
What question needs to be answered by the research?
Why is there a need to answer the research questions being posed?
Who will be using the information, and for what purposes?
The purpose(s) of the research determine the kind and extent of
information to be gathered in the inquiry.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 2: Determination of the Researchability of the Problem and the Value of the
Research
Research topic must be within the limits of ones resources.
Problem must be manageable.
Step 3: Intimate Acquaintance with the Research Problem
Efforts should be exerted to acquire a wide & deep understanding of the nature of the
problem studied.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 4: Formulation of the Hypotheses & Statement of the Assumption of the Study
Hypothesis is an assertion or proposition about an unknown phenomenon; e.g., about the
relationship of 2 or more variables, the validity of which is to be tested in the course of the
research.
Formulation of hypotheses used certain assumptions.
Statements are taken to be true, without verification in the study in which it is made.
May be theoretically derived or based on commonly accepted as facts or findings of previous
research.
Hypotheses can be formulated by means of a functional relationship between variables which
have been operationally defined.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 5: Choice of Empirical Variables

Establish operational or working definitions
Establish relationship of dependent & independent variables
Step 6: Determination of Possible Research Obstacles
Obstacles should be anticipated and preventive measures taken
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 7: Choice of Research Method

Particular design, strategy to be followed will be selected from a
variety of available models or constructed to suit the situation.
Questions considered:
What is the universe to which I wish to generalize the results? Universe refers to the totality
of subjects under study.
How accurate is the method? Alternatively, how much bias is likely to be introduced if a
particular method is used?
What is the maximum sampling error that can be allowed?
If a particular method is to be employed, will it be within the time & financial limitations set
for the study?
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 8: Preparation of a Detailed Research Design

Full form of the outline of the research plan:
1. Statement of the problem origins & objectives of the research; specific topics (variables) to
be investigated; hypotheses, assumptions, key concepts.
2. Research method, with scheme showing how variables under study will be manipulated or
observed.
3. Sampling Plan
4. Data gathering plan, including instruments such as questionnaires & schedules & the
techniques to be used & procedures for operational control.
5. Plans for data processing & analysis
6. Plans for reporting the research
7. Estimated time schedule & budget
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 9: Collection of Data

Careful & continued supervision is called for.
Field personnel must know what to do at all times, but should have access to proper
direction & advice in the event that they run into difficulties.
Step 10: Analysis and Interpretation of Data
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 11: Drawing of Conclusions & Recommendations

Conclusion, statement of the contribution of the research to
further knowledge.
Are results useful? If so, in what way can they be applied?
Suggestions for further investigations in the same field may be
made.
Modifications that should be introduced if one were to study
the same problem again may also be given.
Before drawing conclusions, it would be well to discuss the
results of the analysis with persons knowledgeable about the
subject matter of the research.
Consultation may save one the embarassment of making
unwarranted conclusions.
RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 12: Reporting the Research Findings

Report must be written in an objective & straightforward
manner, avoiding value judgments or clearly indicating them as
such.
Every statement made must be congruent with the research
findings & other facts.
Generalizations must be properly qualified.
RESEARCH PROJECT

Summary:
Identify the problem
Ask a clear question
Limit the scope of the research
Say what is known and not known about the problem
Identify the skills and information needed to answer the question
Select the methods needed to collect & analyze the data
Explain the kind of results expected and how they will be presented
Specify the timetable and budget
PREVIOUS DISCUSSION
Introduction
Definition of Research.
Truth, accuracy, validity and reliability.
Role and Importance of Research.
Characteristics of Good Research (4 Elements).
Outline, sampling design, data gathering plan and plan for the analysis of
collected data.
Different Types of Research
Basic or Applied (Research problem)
Descriptive, Exploratory, Explanatory-Experimental and Evaluative (General)
Experimental and Non-Experimental (Nature of problem and related research
goal).
The Research Process
12 Steps
Possible Obstacles
THE RESEARCH QUESTION
FOCUSING ON RESEARCH PROBLEM
If there is no focused research problem
There is no research.
We do not get approval nor funding.
We lurk around with an unfinished academic degree.
Or give up on the idea of research as necessary to professional success.
Choose your research adviser.
Select a person who is competent in your topic and has the available
time and commitment to assist you in the entire research process.
Ask yourself if you can have a meaningful interaction with your research
adviser.
Consider the teamwork and contribution of members of your panel to
your research.
RESEARCH QUESTION

Objective of study
Uncertainty you want to resolve.
Begins with a general concern researchable issue.
RESEARCH QUESTION

Should pass the so what test!!!

Answers to the acronym, FINER.
F feasible
I interesting
N novel
E ethical
R relevant
ORIGINS OF A RESEARCH QUESTION

Findings and Problems observed in prior studies and in other

workers in the field.
Mastering the literature
Being alert to new ideas and techniques
Keep the imagination roaming
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

Feasible
Number of subjects
Technical expertise
Time and Money
Manageable scope
Interesting
To the investigator
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

Novel
Confirms or refutes previous finding
Extends previous findings
Provides new findings
Ethical
Relevant
To scientific knowledge
To clinical, health and environmental policy
To future research directions
STEPS YOU CAN FOLLOW

1. Choose an interesting topic where you already have some information. Avoid
topics that you are just encountering for the first time.
2. Survey existing studies to discover the many sides of the topic.
3. Consider what is still unknown about the topic.
4. Ask questions and see if these have been studied and answered in previous
research.
5. Choose at least one question you can manage to research given a period of time,
resources, access to and availability of data.
6. Consider how you can contribute to confirming existing theories. How your
research can generate and add to knowledge.
7. State your research problem in a sentence showing what you want to describe,
explain or predict.
8. Start developing your hypothesis and identifying your variables. The variables
will be needed at the early stage of defining the problem.
DEVELOPING THE RESEARCH QUESTION AND THE
STUDY PLAN

Clarify ones ideas

Discover specific problems that
needs attention.
RESEARCH QUESTION AND STUDY PLAN:
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Problems Solutions
Not feasible Narrow the question
Too broad Specify a smaller set of
variables
Not enough subjects
Expand & modify criteria
Lengthen time frame
Collaborate with colleagues
Methods beyond skill of
investigator Consult experts
Learn the skill
RESEARCH QUESTION AND STUDY PLAN:
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Solutions
Problems Consider less costly study
Not feasible designs
Too expensive Fewer subjects &
measurements
Less extensive measurements
Fewer follow-up visits
Not interesting, novel or Consult with mentor
relevant
Modify research question
Uncertain ethical suitability Consult with institutional
review board
Modify research question
RESEARCH QUESTION AND STUDY PLAN:
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Solutions
Write research question at an
early stage
Problems Get specific like:
Study Plan is vague How subjects will be
sampled?
How variables will be
measured?
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY QUESTIONS

Advantages
Efficiency in results
Disadvantages
Increasing complexity in designing, implementing and drawing statistical
inferences from the study with multiple hypothesis.
SENSIBLE STRATEGY!!!!

Establish a single primary research question

Focus development of study plan and sample size estimation
Supplement primary research question with secondary questions to produce
valuable conclusions.
VARIABLES
DEFINE VARIABLES

Categories of variables:
Independent presumed to cause, effect, influence or stimulate
the outcome.
Dependent refers to the output, the outcome or the response
variable.
Control may produce changes which may be mistaken to be
the effect of the independent variables being considered
Controlled, held constant or randomized so the effects are
neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions.
Confounding/extraneous/intervening variable observed
event/factor that is expected to possibly affect the relation
between the independent and dependent variable.
UNDERSTANDING VARIABLES

Understanding variables is important because the research problem could be one

that asks:
Is there a cause and effect relationship between the variables? Specifiy which
variables you think are the cause and effect.
Is there a relationship between two variables, but not necessarily cause and effect?
State the variables in such a way as to find out how one affects the other.
What is the nature of the variable under different conditions? Describe the target
variable/s.
Aside from using variables in the statement of the problem, we also use them in the
statement of hypothesis.
OBJECTIVES
FORMULATING THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Reflect the questions whose answers are the investigator wants the study to
yield.
Expressed either in the form of a statement or a question.
Answers the question WHY do the investigator wants to conduct a specific
procedure or methodology?
Important. They serve as the steering wheel in the conduct of the research.
Guides in specifying the variables of the study, the choice of the research
design to be used, the data to be collected, the interpretation of results.
STATING THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

Stating the research objective means presenting what you want to achieve.
You determine the reasons why you are dealing with the research problem.
Objectives are usually expressed in the form of statememts of expected
outcomes.
Some helps in writing research objectives:
Your general objective should be related to the main problem.
You can divide the main problem into sub-problems. Specific objectives can be stated
in relation to sub-problems.
Your hypothesis will lead you stating expected outcomes.
Characteristics of a Good Research Objectives:
Phrased clearly, unambiguously and specifically.
Focus on a clear goal to give direction to the research process
Stated in measurable terms and should not involve value judgement.
HYPOTHESIS
FORMULATE TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis must be expressed in a concrete and clear manner, and stated in
terms of observable and measurable behavior, allowing objective evaluation
of results.
Provides guidance in the search for evidence by way of:
Limiting area of investigation
Sensitizing the researcher to pertinent data and relationships
Providing a unifying concept
Null hypothesis
Alternate hypothesis
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH
DEFENDING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Can be written by answering the questions?

What is the impact of focusing on the research problem? Is it a current concern?
It is basic research, in what way will the expected outcomes be useful? What is it
expected to contribute to the fields of knowledge?
If it is applied research, what practical probles can it resolve? What is the
effect/impact of dealing with the problem/need?
SURVEY OF LITERATURE
CONSOLIDATING THE SURVEY OF LITERATURE

In the research plan the survey of the literature is presented in summary.

Highlights the relevant studies.
Discusses briefly what past studies have been accomplished and what still needs
to be done.
It states how research will address the theoretical gaps and thereby contribute to
knowledge.
In writing the the reaerch report, the survey of literature is again presented.
Aside from the highlights of relevant studies, we state in what way the research
has been able to fill in the gaps and contribute to knowledge and theory.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION
SETTING THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION

Factors considered in delimiting the problem

Scope of the problem
Time allotted for the conduct of the study
Cost and funding
Cooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or researchers
Availability of research subjects
Availability of equipment needed
Ethical considerations
RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH METHODS
Experimental Research Methods
Involve the standard practice of manipulating quantitative, independent variables to
generate statistically analyzable data.
Generally, the system of scientific measurements is interval or ratio based.
Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment

Opinion Based Research Methods

Questionnaires are an effective way of quantifying data from a sample group, and
testing emotions or preferences.
Methods generally involve designing an experiment and collecting quantitative data.
Measurements are usually arbitrary, following the ordinal or interval type.
The methods can be replicated and the results falsified.
Observational Research Methods
A group of different research methods where researchers try to observe a
phenomenon without interfering too much.
Observational research tends to use nominal or ordinal scales of measurement.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There are various designs which are used in research, all with specific
advantages and disadvantages. Which one the scientist uses, depends on
the aims of the study and the nature of the phenomenon:

1. Descriptive Designs 3. Semi-Experimental Designs

Aim: Observe and Describe Aim: Determine Causes

Descriptive Research Field Experiment
Case Study Quasi-Experimental Design
Naturalistic Observation Twin Studies
Survey, also see our Survey Guide

2. Correlational Studies 4. Experimental Designs

Aim: Predict Aim: Determine Causes

Case Control Study True Experimental Design
Observational Study Double-Blind Experiment
Cohort Study
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Correlational Studies in general
 CHOOSING THE SUBJECTS:
SPECIFICATION, SAMPLING AND
RECRUITMENT
DEFINITION

Target population large set of people throughout the world to which results will
be generalized.
Example: All water bodies in Laguna
Study sample subset of the target population available for study
Example: Rivers in Laguna
INFERENCES IN GENERALIZATION

Research Question Actual Plan

Target Study subjects

Population

Infer

Truth in the Universe Findings in the Study

CONSIDERATIONS IN GENERALIZING

Representativeness of Study subjects

Sampling Design
Validity
Based on general knowledge that relationships tend to be similar in demographically
similar populations and on findings of other studies.
STEPS IN DESIGNING THE PLAN FOR ACQUIRING
STUDY SUBJECTS
Research Question Study Plan

Design
Target Intended
Population sample

Truth in the Universe Truth in the Study

WHAT IS SAMPLING?

Process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study population.

Questions considered in sampling:
What is the group of subjects (study population) we are interested in
from which we want to draw a sample?
How many subjects do we need in our sample?
How will these subjects be selected?
SELECTION CRITERIA

Establishing inclusion criteria

Establishing exclusion criteria
WHAT ARE IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED
WITH SAMPLING PROCEDURES?
SAMPLING
POPULATION - the totality of individuals or objects of interest > parameter is measured.
TARGET POPULATION - a subset of the population where representative information is
desired and to which inferences will be made .
SAMPLING POPULATION - a subset of the population where the sample is actually taken
~statistic is measured.
SAMPLING UNIT - the units which are chosen in selecting the sample, and may be
comprised of a non-overlapping collection of elements.
ELEMENTARY UNIT/ELEMENT - the sample where observations or data will be acquired.
SAMPLING FRAME - listing of all sampling units from which a sample will be drawn or the
collection of all the sampling units.
SAMPLING ERROR - the difference between the population value (parameter) and the
estimate of this value based on the different samples.

POPULATION: Filipino college students

TARGET POPULATION: State university students
SAMPLING POPULATION: UP Manila students
ELEMENTARY UNIT: BS Biology majors
SAMPLING FRAME: OCS list of enrolled students
TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Any sampling scheme in which the probability of a population element being
chosen is unknown.
Data normally analyzed using non-parametric statistical tests (non-normal
distribution assumed).
Appropriate when the researcher has no intention of generalizing beyond the
sample.
Advantages:
More easily administered
Samples tend to be less complicated and less time consuming
May occasionally serve as the only possible means of getting a sample (especially for
"hidden populations", e.g. drug users, etc.)
Disadvantages:
Does not allow the study's ndings to be generalized from the sample to the
population.
When discussing the results of a nonprobability sample, the researcher must limit
his/her ndings to the persons or elements sampled
More likely to produce biased results.
No dened rules to compute for estimates.
Cannot compute the reliability of estimates.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Any sampling scheme wherein each population element has a known non-zero
chance of being included in the sample
Analyzed using parametric statistical tests (normal distribution assumed)
Uses random selection procedures to ensure that each unit of the sample is
chosen on the basis of chance where all units of the study population should have
an equal or at least a known chance of being included in the sample.
Requires that a listing of all study units (sampling frame) exists or can be
compiled.

Advantages:
Probability samples are the only type of samples where the results can be generalized
from the sample to the population.
Allows the researcher to calculate the precision of the estimate as well as the
sampling error.
Disadvantages:
More difcult and costly to conduct.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
Judgmental/Purposive
A representative sample of the population is selected based on a researchers
"expert" judgment.
Prior knowledge and research skill are used in choosing the respondents or
elements to be sampled.
Selection of patients in a clinical trial by a medical specialist
Choice of participants based on a pre-test questionnaire or focus-group
discussion (FGD).

Haphazard/Accidental
Also known as convenience sampling, is a sampling design where the samples
are selected by an arbitrary method that is easy to carry out.
Friends as a sample of college students.
Ambush interviews of random people in the area.
Households of relatives or friends as sampling sites.
Quota
Dividing the population into predetermined classes then obtaining haphazard
samples of a xed size (quota) within each class.
Obtaining the RH bill opinion of 2O people per region in a municipality.
A researcher desires to obtain a certain number or respondents from different
income categories.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
The most basic type of sampling design wherein every element in the population has
an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Steps to follow:
1. Prepare an exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of
interest.
2. Decide on the size of the sample.
3. Select the necessary number of sampling units (lottery method, a table of random
numbers, or the RAN function of a calculator).
Advantages:
Simple design, easy to analyze.
Guarantees unbiased estimates of population parameters.
The average of the sample estimates over all possible samples is equal to the population
parameter.
Disadvantages:
Not cost efficient.
Requires a sampling frame or listing of all elementary units of the population which
might be costly and tedious to prepare.
Even though the probability is very small, it is possible that non-representative
samples can be drawn from the population.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
The researcher selects samples at regular intervals (every 1st , 2nd , 3rd or kth ].
The sampling interval is computed as k = N/n where k is the sampling interval, N is the
population size, and n is the desired sample size.
Example:N = 20; n = 10
Sampling interval = 20/10 = 2 or every 2nd unit
Randomly draw a number from 1 to 20 = 3 for instance
Samples are selected every 2nd unit (example: households 3, 5, 7... and so on) until n = 10 is
reached.
Advantages:
Easier compared to simple random sampling .
A systematic sample may spread the members selected for measurement more evenly
across the entire population.
In some cases, systematic sampling may have better representativeness and more
precise.
It can allow the researcher to draw a probability sample without complete prior
knowledge of the sampling frame.
Disadvantages:
Can lead to difculties when the variable of interest is periodic (with period n).
For example, when conducting a sample of nancial records that follow a calendar schedule.
Setting the sampling interval to 7 would mean that all observations would fall on the same day of
the week.
This introduces bias into the sample since an inappropriate interval was chosen.
Periodic or list effect - a foregoing source of sampling error.
For example, if we used a very long list such as a telephone directory for our sampling frame.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPIING
A modication of simple random sampling
Is used when we want to guarantee that each stratum (subgroup) constitutes an
appropriate portion or representation in the sample.
It involves categorizing the members of the population into mutually exclusive
and collectively exhaustive groups.
Simple random sampling is then independently carried out for each group.

Advantages:
Can be used to improve the accuracy of the sample estimates when there is prior
knowledge that the variability in the data is not constant across the subgroups.
Enable the researcher to determine the desired level of sampling precision for each
stratum.
Stratied random sampling produces an unbiased estimate of the population mean with
better precision compared to simple random sampling with the same total sample size
n.
Disadvantage:
May require a very large n if reliable estimates for each stratum are desired.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
CLUSTER SAMPLING
A method of sampling in which the element selected is a group (rather than an
individual), called a cluster.
For instance, the clusters could be city blocks. Cluster sampling.

Similar to stratied sampling because the population to be sampled is subdivided into

mutually exclusive groups. However, in cluster sampling the groups are dened so as to
maintain the heterogeneity of the population.
The goal of the researcher is to establish clusters that are representative of the
population as a whole, although in practice this may be difficult to achieve.
Once the clusters are established, a simple random sample of the clusters is drawn and
the members of the chosen clusters are sampled.
One-stage cluster sampling all of the elements (members) of the clusters selected are
sampled.
Two-stage cluster sampling a random sample of the elements of each selected cluster is
drawn.
Advantages:
Can be employed in the absence of a sampling frame.
Since the clusters are randomly selected, the samples can be representative of the
population (unbiased estimates).
Reduced cost of data collection.
Disadvantage:
Sometimes, there is. loss of precision
If the heterogeneity within the clusters is not similar to the heterogeneity within the
population.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
A procedure carried out in phases involving a combination of probability sampling
designs.
The population is divided into sets of primary or rst stage sampling units and then a
random sample of secondary stage units is obtained from each of the selected units in
the rst stage.
This type of sampling method is appropriate for very large and diverse populations
where the selection of elementary units may be done in two or more stages.
Example: Nationwide survey of all "5 regions (stratied)
1 province/region - primary sampling unit (simple random sampling)
1 urban & 1 rural barangay - secondary sampling unit (stratified random sampling)
1 cluster of 35 households -- tertiary sampling unit (cluster sampling)
Choose the households per cluster elementary unit (systematic sampling)
*Sampling design: 4-stage, stratied, systematic, cluster, simple random sampling.

Advantages:
Cost-efficient.
Samples are easier to select if a sampling frame is available.
Disadvantages:
May require complicated analyses .
Sample size must be large enough to obtain representative estimates; of the
Parameters.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There are various designs which are used in research, all with specific
advantages and disadvantages. Which one the scientist uses, depends on
the aims of the study and the nature of the phenomenon:

1. Descriptive Designs 3. Semi-Experimental Designs

Aim: Observe and Describe Aim: Determine Causes

Descriptive Research Field Experiment
Case Study Quasi-Experimental Design
Naturalistic Observation Twin Studies
Survey, also see our Survey Guide

2. Correlational Studies 4. Experimental Designs

Aim: Predict Aim: Determine Causes

Case Control Study True Experimental Design
Observational Study Double-Blind Experiment
Cohort Study
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Correlational Studies in general
CASE STUDY OR CASE SERIES

Case Study
Study of only one case of an outcome
Case Series
Study of 2 or more cases of the same outcome
Describe clinical features of a rare disease, a disease defying diagnosis, a
new disease, interesting cases.
Study only cases, no comparison groups
Relationship of the disease with an exposure factor cannot be
determined.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There are various designs which are used in research, all with specific
advantages and disadvantages. Which one the scientist uses, depends on
the aims of the study and the nature of the phenomenon:

1. Descriptive Designs 3. Semi-Experimental Designs

Aim: Observe and Describe Aim: Determine Causes

Descriptive Research Field Experiment
Case Study Quasi-Experimental Design
Naturalistic Observation Twin Studies
Survey, also see our Survey Guide

2. Correlational Studies 4. Experimental Designs

Aim: Predict Aim: Determine Causes

Observational Study True Experimental Design
Case Control Study Double-Blind Experiment
Cohort Study
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Correlational Studies in general
CASE CONTROL STUDIES

Type of observational study where cases of a disease are compared with a similar
group who do not have the illness.
Groups are compared to history of exposure to some factor.
Undertaken to study rare diseases or conditions and determine sensitivity and
specificity of certain tests or criteria.

Measure of association: Odds Ratio

If ratio of odds of exposure among the 2 groups compared departs from unity, then a
relationship between disease and exposure is known to exist.
Main disadvantage: Temporal ambiguity, recall bias and inability to directly
measure disease frequency.
COHORT STUDIES

A subset of the longitudinal study because it observes the effect on a specific

group of people over time.
Based on selection of comparable groups based on their exposure or non-
exposure to a factor.
Those who have disease at the baseline determination are eliminated from
follow-up.
Only those who do not have disease are followed up and occurrence of disease
is noted.
Rate of development of disease or outcome is compared between those who
had the exposure and those who did not have.
COHORT STUDIES

Straight forward : Goes with natural direction of exposure coming before the
development of disease.
Measure magnitude of disease relative to the exposure factor.
Subjects:
Entire population
Select people who are exposed and getting a comparable group of non-exposed
individuals
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
A type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from
a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time.
Aims to provide data on the entire population under study.
can be used to describe, not only the odds ratio, but also absolute risks and
relative risks from prevalences (sometimes called prevalence risk ratio.
May be used to describe some feature of the population, such as prevalence of
an illness, or they may support inferences of cause and effect.
Study relationships of an outcome to a specified exposure as the 2 variables
occur at the individual level.
Give a description of the occurrence of one factor with the presence of an
outcome.
Measure: Prevalence of both outcome and the exposure factor.
Simultaneous existence of 2 factors in an individual.
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
Inherent problem: Cannot determine which among the exposure or the outcome
occurs first (temporal ambiguity)
Formulate possible hypothesis regarding causation which can be tested by
analytical study designs.
Not expensive and easy to conduct.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There are various designs which are used in research, all with specific
advantages and disadvantages. Which one the scientist uses, depends on
the aims of the study and the nature of the phenomenon:

1. Descriptive Designs 3. Semi-Experimental Designs

Aim: Observe and Describe Aim: Determine Causes

Descriptive Research Field Experiment
Case Study Quasi-Experimental Design
Naturalistic Observation Twin Studies
Survey, also see our Survey Guide

2. Correlational Studies 4. Experimental Designs

Aim: Predict Aim: Determine Causes

Observational Study True Experimental Design
Case Control Study Double-Blind Experiment
Cohort Study
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Correlational Studies in general
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Studies only one group which received the treatment or intervention.

Precludes random assignment of treatment.
PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Type:
1. One-group posttest design only (one-shot case study) very poor design.
Difficult to determine if there was a change or not.
2. One-group pretest-posttest design attempt to detect changes by
comparing measurements before and after intervention.
Any change in measurement may still not be due to intervention.
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Utilize control groups but falls short of being a true experiment because of:
Absence of random allocation in assignment of treatment/intervention.
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Types:
1. Non-equivalent control group design control may have same
characteristics as experimental except that there was no randomization.
Variables may influence effect of exposure on the outcome.

2. Time series Attempt to compare changes before and after

Any real change due to intervention may be difficult to detect.
If done on human populations, it is similar to ecologic trend studies.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH METHODS
There are various designs which are used in research, all with specific
advantages and disadvantages. Which one the scientist uses, depends on
the aims of the study and the nature of the phenomenon:

1. Descriptive Designs 3. Semi-Experimental Designs

Aim: Observe and Describe Aim: Determine Causes

Descriptive Research Field Experiment
Case Study Quasi-Experimental Design
Naturalistic Observation Twin Studies
Survey, also see our Survey Guide

2. Correlational Studies 4. Experimental Designs

Aim: Predict Aim: Determine Causes

Observational Study True Experimental Design
Case Control Study Double-Blind Experiment
Cohort Study
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Correlational Studies in general
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Determine efficacy or effectiveness of treatment or drugs for specific

diseases, & preventive measures/programs.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Experimental studies with groups of people or communities as units of

analysis are called community trials.
Experimental studies with an individual or a person as its unit of analysis
are called clinical trial.
Give the most accurate measurement of the relationship of the exposure
with the outcome compared to the other study types.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
Differentiated from non-experimental or observational studies.
1. There is manipulation of the independent variable in the form of applying to or
withholding treatment or intervention from a group.
2. There is a control or comparison group.
3. Assignment of treatment or no treatment to the 2 groups

HENCE, THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN EXPERIMENT:

Treatment: a combination of the levels of one or more independent variables;
also known as factors.
Experimental/Observational unit: smallest unit of the study material sharing a
common treatment; e.g. an animal, a plot of land, a specimen sample, a human
subject, etc.

SOURCES OF VARIATION IN OBSERVED RESPONSES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL UNIT MAY INCLUDE:

Variation due to the effects of the independent variable/s
Variation due to the effects of identied extraneous variable/s (e.g. genetics or health
condition of subject)
Variation due to unidentied sources (i.e. error variation)
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
An experimental research design must be formulated in a manner wherein variation in
observed data is mainly due to the effects of the independent variable/s.
In order to minimize variation in observed data due to extraneous variables or unidentied
sources, DATA ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES may be incorporated in the experimental design:
RANDOMIZATION
Any experimental study requires random allocation of treatments to experimental units to
avoid bias.
All experimental units have the same chance (equal probability) of being given any
of the treatments.

REPLICATION
Commonly known as replicates
Number of experimental units in a single treatment at one time = number of replicates for
that treatment (e.g. 5 mice per treatment, 3 plants per treatment, etc.)
The mean of the observations from each replicate can be subjected to statistical tests or
inferences.

BLOCKING
Groups of experimental units sharing a common level of an extraneous variable.
Based on agricultural eld experiments where blocks such as plots of land share the same soil
conditions.
e.g. In comparing the effects of soil characteristics to plant yield: Experimental units were 3
plots of land and the treatments/ independent variable is variety of a particular plant. Plant
yield is the outcome of interest.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Source: Santiago, ATA, Sia Su GL and Vicencio, JG. ND. Course Module in
Bio 190 General Biostatistics. Department of Biology CAS UP Manila.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

Planning a research.
Represents the plan by which the investigator intends to pursue his/her
objectives.
Minimizes the effect of competing variables on the relationship between the
exposure factor and the outcome.
Embodies strategies by which desired results are obtained with minimum
expenditures of time, money and effort.
DATA ANALYSIS
HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR DATA?
RESEARCH PROCESS
Measurements
Sample or Population Data.
Organize and summarize.
Collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability
theory to estimate population parameters.
Descriptive statistics (Summarize and describe).
Important characteristics of a set of measurements.
Methods of tabulation, graphical presentation, computation of averages.

Inferential statistics (Make inferences).

Population characteristics from information derived in a sample drawn from a population.
Estimation of parameters and testing of hypothesis.
VARIABLES AND DATA

DATA
A collection of facts (measurements) from which conclusions may be
drawn.

VARIABLE
A characteristic that changes or varies over time and/or for different
individuals or objects under consideration.
Can assume any of a set of values.
Generates data.
TYPES OF DATA

Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Categorical Discrete Continuous

Nominal Ordinal

* Either can be a constant or a variable.

NOMINAL VS. ORDINAL VARIABLES

NOMINAL VARIABLE
Is for mutual exclusive, but not ordered, categories.
Compare five different genotypes.
Code five genotypes with numbers but the order is arbitrary.

ORDINAL VARIABLE
The order matters but not the difference between values.
The amount of pain patients are feeling (on a scale of 1 to 10).
A score of 7 means more pain than a score of 5, and that is more than a score
of 3.
But the difference between the scores 7 and 5 may not be the same as that
between 5 and 3.
The values simply express an order.
OTHER CATEGORIES OF VARIABLES ACCORDING TO
SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
INTERVAL VARIABLE
Exact distance between 2 categories can be determined but the zero point is
arbitrary.
Difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same
difference as between 90 degrees and 80 degrees.

RATIO VARIABLE
Has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0.
Exact distance between 2 categories can be determined but the zero point is fixed.
When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable.
Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables.
CATEGORIES OF DATA ACCORDING TO HOW MANY
VARIABLES ARE MEASURED

UNIVARIATE DATA
Result when a single variable is measured on a single experimental unit.
e.g., record of a persons height.

BIVARIATE DATA
Result when two variables are measured on a single experimental unit.
e.g., record of a persons height and weight.

MULTIVARIATE DATA
Result when more than two variables are measured.
e.g., record of a persons height, weight, gender, and age.
ORIGIN AND DISPLAY OF DATA (DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS)

When a variable is actually measured on a set of experimental units, a set of

measurements or data result.
Collected data are consolidated and summarized:
A statistical table can be used to display data graphically as a data
distribution.
For qualitative data, three measurements are available for the list of
categories:
The frequency, or number of measurements
The relative frequency, or proportion
The percentage
PIE CHARTS and BAR CHARTS

For quantitative data set,

PIE & BAR CHARTS; LINE CHARTS; DOT PLOTS; STEM AND LEAF PLOTS and RELATIVE
FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM
INTERPRETING GRAPHS WITH A CRITICAL EYE

What to look for as you describe the data?

Scales
Location
Shape
Outliers

Distributions are often described by their shapes:

Symmetric
Skewed to the right (long tail goes right)
Skewed to the left (long tail goes left)
Unimodal, bimodal, multimodal (one peak, two peaks, many peaks)
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES
GRAPHS
Very useful in depicting the basic shape of a data distribution.
Not always the best tool for making inferences.
Describing the data without a visual aid.
Explaining the similarities and differences between two histograms in some
concrete way.
If identical you could say They are the same.
If different it is difficult to describe the degree of difference.

NUMERICAL MEASURES
Can be calculated for either a sample or population measurements.
Calculate a set of numbers that will convey a good mental picture of the
frequency distribution.
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES

1. Measures of center: mean, median, and mode

2. Measures of variability: range, variance, and standard deviation

3. Tchebysheffs Theorem and the Empirical Rule

4. Measures of relative standing: z-scores, percentiles, quartiles, and the

interquartile range

5. Box plots
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES

I. Measures of the Center of a Data Distribution

1. Arithmetic mean (mean) or average

a. Population: m

b. Samples of n measurements:

2. Median: position of the median = .5(n +1)

3. Mode
4. The median may preferred to the mean is the data are
highly skewed.
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES
II. Measures of Variability

1. Range: R = largest - smallest

2. Variance
a. Population of N measurements: s 2 =
b. Sample of n measurements:

3. Standard deviation
a. Population:

b. Sample:
4. A rough approximation for s can be calculated as s R / 4.
The divisor can be adjusted depending on the sample size.
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES

III. Tchebysheffs Theorem and the Empirical Rule

1. Use Tchebysheffs Theorem for any data set, regardless of
its shape or size.
a. At least 1-(1/k 2 ) of the measurements lie within k
standard deviation of the mean.
b. This is only a lower bound; there may be more
measurements in the interval.
2. The Empirical Rule can be used only for relatively mound-
shaped data sets. Approximately 68%, 95%, and almost all
of the measurements are within one, two, and three standard
deviations of the mean, respectively.
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES

IV. Measures of Relative Standing

1. Sample z-score:

2. pth percentile; p% of the measurements are smaller, and

(100 - p)% are larger.
3. Lower quartile, Q 1; position of Q 1 = .25(n +1)
4. Upper quartile, Q 3 ; position of Q 3 = .85(n +1)
5. Interquartile range: IQR = Q 3 - Q 1
DESCRIBING DATA WITH NUMERICAL MEASURES

V. Box Plots
1. Box plots are used for detecting outliers and shapes of
distributions.
2. Q 1 and Q 3 form the ends of the box. The median line is in
the interior of the box.
3. Inner and outer fences are used to find outliers.
a. Inner fences: Q 1 - 1.5(IQR) and Q 1 + 1.5(IQR)
b. Outer fences: Q 1 - 3(IQR) and Q 1 + 3(IQR)

4. Whiskers are marked by adjacent values, the last

observations in the ordered set before the inner fence.

5. Skewed distributions usually have a long whisker in the

direction of the skewness, and the median line is drawn
away from the direction of the skewness.
HOW TO PROCEED WITH DATA ANALYSIS?

Population from which the data arise possesses a distribution that

is approximately Normal (or Gaussian).
Standard deviation provides a useful basis for interpreting the data
in terms of probability.
Normal distribution is defined uniquely by two parameters.
Mean and standard deviation.

A potential source of confusion in working out what statistics to

use in analysing data is whether your data allows for parametric
or non-parametric statistics.

The importance of this issue cannot be underestimated!

If you get it wrong you risk using an incorrect statistical procedure

or you may use a less powerful procedure.
PARAMETRIC VS. NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS

PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Tests done for samples that are approximately normally distributed. Requires a mean
and variance. Requires the estimation of 1 or more population parameters.

Example: An estimate of the difference in the average between the 1st and
2nd populations.
NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Tests that can be done without the assumption of normality. These tests do not require
a mean and standard deviation. Does not involve estimation of a specific parameter.

Example: Provides you with an estimate of P[X>Y], probability that a

randomly selected patient from your first population has a larger value
than a randomly selected patient from the second population.
Non-parametric test do not have the same statistical power as parametric test do.
Non-parametric test should only be used when substantial non-normality of the sample
is believed to exist or when one wishes to be particularly conservative on the side of
Type I errors.
There are non-parametric tests which are similar to the parametric tests.
PARAMETRIC VS. NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Parametric test Goal Non-parametric Goal
test

Two sample T- To see if 2 Wilcoxon-Rank- To see if 2 samples have identical

test samples have Sum Test population medians
identical
population means
One sample T- To test a Wilcoxon Signed To test a hypothesis about the
test hypothesis about Ranks Test median of population a sample was
the mean of the taken from
population a
sample was taken
from
Chi-square To see if a sample Kolniogorov- To see if a sample could have
Test for for a theoretical Seurnov Test come from a certain distribution
Goodness of distribution such
Fit as the normal
curve
ANOVA To see if 2 or Kruskal-Wallis To test if 2 or more sample
more sample Test medians are significantly different
means are
significantly
different
NORMALITY TESTS
Supplementary to the graphical assessment of normality.
The main tests for the assessment of normality are:
1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test
2. Lilliefors corrected K-S test
3. Shapiro-Wilk test
4. Anderson-Darling test
5. Cramer-von Mises test
6. DAgostino skewness test
7. Anscombe-Glynn kurtosis test
8. DAgostino-Pearson omnibus test
9. Jarque-Bera test
Compare the scores in the sample to a normally distributed set
of scores
Same mean and standard deviation.
The null hypothesis is that sample distribution is normal.
If the test is significant, the distribution is non-normal.
THE NECESSARY STEPS OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

1. Specify the questions to be answered and identify the

population of interest.
2. Decide how to select the sample.
3. Select the sample and analyze the sample information.
4. Use the information from step 3 to make an inference about
the population.
5. Determine the reliability of the inference.
Reliability -> Validity
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Internal Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
 ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Respect for persons

Principle of beneficence
Principle of Justice
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Respect for persons

Obtain informed consent from participants
Protect participants with impaired decision-making capacity
Maintain confidentiality

Research participants are not passive sources of data, but individuals whose rights and
welfare must be protected.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Principle of Beneficence
Research design must be scientifically sound
Risks are minimal and benefits are more
Risks: Physical or Psychosocial harm like breaches of confidentiality, stigma and
discrimination.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Principle of Justice
Benefits and burdens of research be distributed fairly.
Equitable access to the benefits of research
Vulnerable populations should not be target for research if other populations would also
be suitable.
VULNERABLE PEOPLE
Children
Prisoners
Pregnant women, fetuses, embryos
People with impaired decision-making capacity
WHAT RESEARCH IS EXEMPT FROM
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL?

Survey, interview, observations of public behavior

Studies of existing records, data or specimens, provided that samples exist
and are publicly available.
Research on normal educational practices, environmental research that do
not use hazardous and toxic substances.
INFORMED CONSENT?

Disclose the following information:

Why is the research being done?
What will participants do in the course of the research?
What are the risks and benefits of participating?
Specifically discuss the following items
INFORMED CONSENT

1. Nature of research project

2. Procedures of the study
3. Risks and potential benefits of study and alternatives to participating in
the study
4. Procedures to maintain confidentiality
5. Assurances that participation in research is voluntary
6. Consent forms (Written)
7. Subjects who lack decision-making capacity
CHECKLIST FOR INFORMED CONSENT

Nature of research project

Explicit statement that the project involves research
Identification of investigators
Purposes of the research
Procedure for selection of subjects
Procedures of the study
Time required
Assignment of treatments
Explanation of randomization and blinding
Procedures that are experimental
CHECKLIST FOR INFORMED CONSENT

Benefits and harms of procedures

Probability and magnitude of benefits and harms
Procedures to maximize benefits and minimize harms
Alternative procedures or treatment available outside the study
Potential costs
Information about results that will or will not be disclosed to subjects
Procedures to maintain confidentiality
CHECKLIST FOR INFORMED CONSENT

Assurances and contact information

Assurances that participation in research is voluntary
Assurance that subject may decline to participate or withdraw at any
time without penalty
Explicit offer to answer questions or provide further information
Directions on whom to contact with questions about the study and the
rights of research subjects, or about injuries resulting from the research.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF INVESTIGATORS
Scientific misconduct
Fabrication
Falsification
Plagiarism
Conflicts of interest
Dual roles for clinician-investigators
Financial conflicts of interest
RESPONDING TO CONFLICTING INTERESTS
Minimize conflicting interests by blinding, peer review process
Disclose competing and conflicting interests
Ban certain situations that lead to conflicts of interest
AUTHORSHIP

Must make substantial contributions to:

Conception and design of project, data analysis and interpretation
Drafting or revising of the article, give final approval of manuscript

Acquisition of fund, data collection or supervision of a research group does

not justify authorship
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN HANDLING ANIMALS

A seminar on the proper handling and caring of animals

NIH institutional animal care and use committee
Accomplish the animal use protocol form
Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research (UP Manila)
FORMAT AND STYLE

TITLE PAGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Research Objectives
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations
Definition of Terms
FORMAT AND STYLE

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

General information about your topic.
Test organism/s or samples (i.e. biological material, subjects,
potential use or significance etc.)
Mechanisms (i.e. current findings, issues, explored and unexplored
areas)
Techniques (i.e. implemented in organism/s similar or different to
your test organism/s or biological samples).
FORMAT AND STYLE

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Chemical or special reagents.
Mode of acquisition, storage, administration, etc.
Test subjects (Animals or Plants).
Mode of acquisition, storage, rearing.
Institutional and national regulations on experiments governing
animals.
ETHICS

Experimental Design (Sampling and data acquisition methods).

Target number of samples.
Conditions required
Methods ( actual procedures involved in your assay, detection
techniques, etc.)
Sources (i.e. indexed or modified from, etc.)
Statistical tools for data analysis.
FORMAT AND STYLE

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Dummy tables and figures.
Properly labeled
LITERATURE CITED
APA Style
APPENDIX
Images
Accomplished IACUC Form (from NIH).
Test animal, plant samples.
Laboratory setup or layout.
Cage dimensions
Etc.
FORMAT AND STYLE

LINE ITEM BUDGET AND TIME FRAME

Budget layout
GANTT Chart
END OF SLIDE SHOW