Power System Management

Elective VIII semester

EEE Department
 Energy Security
The energy security for a nation involves study of the existing system and hence plan
the requirements to meet the continuously changing needs. For this to be
accomplished,
It is essential to plan the power generation (eg. Commission of new projects,
expansion, modernization, and maintenance of electricity utility industry leads to
investment in fuel cost, increased capital costs etc.)
Requires comprehensive understanding and analysis of power system, which
necessitates exploring the following
1. Where and how much generating capacity should be added?
2. what should be the optimum size of generating units?
3. What types or combination of generation types should used?
(eg. Wind, solar, hydro, conventional..)
4. What will be impact of environmental impact of various generation
alternatives? Etc.
 Energy Security- contd
Planning Process
IT IS THE PROCESS OF TAKING CAREFUL DECISION
What are main inputs for planning?
Quality of systematic though that goes into decision.
Benefits:
It saves project time
Ensures resources are used most economically.
Components of planning
Learning about the environment (strategical goals, decision criteria,
technological needs and constraints, opportunities etc.)
Thinking about available strategical options (eg. Is it feasible to
expand the power system by introducing more wind based
renewable power generation system?)
Actions that involve choosing preferred plans and strategies on
supporting analysis.
 Planning actions

New plans No Undesirable

Deviations from
plans

Monitoring
Planning Implementa
comparing
tion of plans
plans with
results

Undesirable
deviations

Corrective
action
 Power Systems Electricity supply act
Electrification began in the world around 1880, since then electrical
utilities have gradually consolidated into larger units to generate,
transmit and distribute electricity.
Electrification in India started in 1897, with commissioning of small-
hydro electric power station (130 kW) at Darjeeling.
The regulatory systems have consequently changed over time.
The planning of power systems has drastically changed since then, to
ensure adequate power and energy supply.
The planning of power supply must fit with overall energy policy with
due respect to public opinion and reliability of power supply and
hence making planning power system difficult.
The problem of ensuring adequate future power supply varies from
country to country, depending on the peoples expectations,
technological development, and availabilities of resources.
 Power Systems Electricity supply act
Under electricity act, it is the duty of the Central Electricity Authority to
adopt a systematic approach to formulate policy and optimize resources.
Planning should consider the needs of the system existing, new or
refurbished generation, new transmission or upgrades, demand-side
management and so on and resources that may be available to meet them.
Identify back-up fuel requirements (if any), technical and environmental
characteristics and mode of dispatch (base load, intermediate, peaking)
should be identified-if there is a need of additional generation is required.
Environmental and resource constraints are forcing us to approach the
future with better planned and researched projects (with precision and
clarity).
The act, also includes defining major goals for the future to develop least
cost projects, identify new primary resources, better means of distribution,
transmission and generation, emphasise on better and less useful of
electricity (Pumped hydro and super-conducting magnetic coils represent a
possible solution for storage of electricity)
 Power Development An example:
Power development in developing and developed countries
Item Developing countries Developed countries
Load growth Fast Slow

Reliability Low Stringent

Transmission and distribution High Low

loss
Power planning Poor Adequate

Integrated energy planning Lacking Adequate

Grid system Generally weak Very strong

Public acceptance Lacking Public acceptance is perused

Services Non-market Mostly market oriented

 Strategic planning
Planning Actions
Function Time frame Organizational level
(years)
Perspective 10-20 Corporate vision, mission, values statements, national
policy
Strategic 5-10 Utility, regional and national level

Tactical 1-5 Utility/corporate level planning

Operational Few months 1 year Utility level

 Strategic planning

Corporate planning particular business company or enterprise.

Power utility must have a strategic plan with clear vision and mission,
that add values for future
The key elements of the vision are
1. Create international efficient industry (i.e. lowest cost to consumer)
2. Empower consumer (by offering choices and services)
3. Highly motivated corporate team dedicated to achieve excellence of service
Successful utilities whether regulated or not, must have a mission -
a purpose for existence that all employees can support (eg: to
provide an adequate and reliable supply of electricity to meet the
agreed requirements of all consumers)
The power utility must create value for the consumers (i.e. consumer
satisfaction, commercial orientation, respect for the people and
consumers, environmental responsibility, service culture and
technical excellence.
 Strategic planning
Strategy is a unified, comprehensive and integrated plan.
It is designed to ensure that the corporate goals are achieved.
Strategic planning is the process of determining the long term goals and courses of
action and the allocation of resources necessary to accomplish the goals.
The broader horizon of strategic planning has significant implications for resource
planning, (eg. Planning to influence the demand in order to reduce the need to build
new generating capacity. There are means to reduce the demand
1. Changing the tariff structure, eg. Time of day tariff
2. Demand billing
3. Load shifting
4. Encouraging cogeneration
5. Promotion of conservation of energy
6. Preliminary investigation for establishment of need proposed to be achieved through the implementation
of a project.
7. Project identification and formulation
8. Detailed feasibility of report (DFR) regarding technical, demand, organization, environmental aspects,
financial and economic viabilities
9. Preparation of detailed project report
10. Implementation as per planning as detailed project report (obtaining various clearances, getting
investment, approval or financial close, detailed designs and drawings, specifications, tendering and
contracting, execution of various activities, leading to commissioning of the project and monitoring
throughout.
 Load forecasting and modeling

Introduction

Classification and variation of loads

Electric load forecasting

Forecasting methodology

Forecasting modeling

Spatial load forecasting

Peak load forecasting

Reactive load forecasting

References
 INTRODUCTION

Demand for electricity has got rapid increase in economic development

Power system planning Demand forecast and Energy forecast

* Demand Forecast determines the capacity of generation,

transmission and distribution system.

* Energy Forecast establishes policy for procurement of

capital equipment and fuel.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS

Sl. Types of load Demand Diversity Load Demand Factor = Max.

No factor factor factor Demand/Connected Load
.
Diversity Factor = Sum of individual max
1. DOMESTIC LOAD 70-100% 1.2-1.3 10-15% demands/ max demand on the system

2. COMMERCIAL LOAD 90-100% 1.1-1.2 25-30% Load factor = Avg Demand / Max
demand

3. INDUSTRIAL LOAD Large Scale Industries

70-80% - 60-65%

Heavy Industries

85-90% - 70-80%

4. AGRICULTURE LOAD 90-100% 1-1.5 90-100%

5. OTHER LOADS Bulk supplies, Street Light, Traction and

Government Loads
 SYSTEM LOAD VARIATIONS
System Load Profile:

Fig: Typical load profile of a city: (1) domestic, (2) Industrial, (3) commercial, (4) total load
 System Load Characteristics:

Fig: System load Characteristics: (1) Active power (P), (2) Reactive power (Q)

In region of 80-120% of rated voltage, the voltage dependence of composite system loads is;
P = (V/Vr)a Pr (for active power) actually a = [0.6-1.4], b = [1.5-3.2]
Q = (V/Vr)b Qr (for reactive power) ; where a = 1 and b = 2 (assumed)
Real power consumption varies directly with the voltage and Reactive power requirement varies with the square of voltage.
Electric load growth:
Estimated pattern of utilization of electrical energy in India for the year 2001-02
(15th Power Survey Committee of CEA Report)
Domestic 23.5%
Agriculture 24%
Industrial 39%
Railway Traction 2.4%
Commercial 7%
Others 4.1%

Typical 66 kV feeder load:

Typical daily load components of feeder :

Fig: Typical daily load components of feeder :

(1)Continuous process industry and system no-load, (2) Three-shift industry, (3) Two-shift industry, (4) Agriculture,
(5) Single-shift industry, (6) Commercial and domestic, (7)Auxiliary consumption of power plant
 Energy requirement = Annual energy consumption forecast / (1- percent of system losses)
Peak demand (kW) = Annual energy requirement (kWh) / (Capacity factor x demand factor x load factor x 8760)

Generation capacity available for meeting the peak demand = Installed capacity Reserve capacity

ALL INDIA GENERATING CAPACITY (MW)

as on 31.03.2010
INSTALLED GENERATION

200000
159398.49
CAPACITY IN (MW)

150000
102453.98
100000

50000 36863.4
15521.11
4560
0

Thermal Nuclear Hydro R.E.S Total

Thermal 64.6% , Nuclear 2.9% , Hydro 24.7%, R.E.S 7.7% , Total 100%
 ELECTRIC LOAD FORECASTING
Long-term forecasting - load growth and supply / demand side resource management
adjustment ( 2 - 25 years)

Usage: 1. Exploration of natural fuel and water resources

2. Reinforcement planning of generation, transmission and distribution
equipment
3. Establishing future fuel requirement

Mid- term forecasting - operational planning (1month - 2years)

Usage: 1. Deciding rate-structure for billing of different consumer categories

2. Power exchange contract with neighboring utilities and interchange
schedules
3. Annual planning and budgeting for fuel requirements

Short / Very short-term forecasting - operational planning (1day - few weeks / few min - 24hrs)
Usage: 1. Unit commitment and economic dispatch calculations
2. Maintenance scheduling updates
3. On-line load flows, spinning reserve calculations and system security
analysis

**In India, electric load forecasts at the national, regional and state levels are prepared by the Annual
Power Survey Committee under Central Electricity Act**
FORECASTING METHODOLOGY

Classified into three broad classes:

Extrapolation

Correlation

Combination of both

Further classified as:

Deterministic

Probabilistic or,

Stochastic
Extrapolation - Fitting trend curves to basic historical data adjusted to
reflect growth trend itself.

Fig: Decomposition of typical growth curve: (a) total process, (b) decomposition

Fig: Regression curves: (a) through process peaks, (b) representing process mean
Linear trend :
Growth trend in the power industry is mathematically represented as;
Ct = a + bt
Where,
Ct = electricity consumption in any year t
a = consumption for base year, t=0
b = constant annual increase in energy consumption
t = cardinal number of year t with reference to the base
year; T-1+n, where T is the number of years for
which the forecast is required.

Example - Let a = 4 GWh:

b = 0.18 GWh;
n = 5;
t = T 1 + n = 11 1 + 5 = 15
Ct = a + bt = 4 + (0.18x15)
= 6.7 GWh
= C15
Analysis of Time series:
Typical power system load curves can be represented by the equation

Y=T x C x S x I
T= long term trend
C=Cyclical trend(often over several years)
S=Seasonal trend(1 year cycle)
I= irregular movements(noise)

Correlation of demand with temperature:

Domestic and commercial loads increase with cold
on account of use of heating devices
increase with heat
on account of fans, coolers, Air conditioners
A reasonable correlation between demand and temperature has been found in most
power station
Some time, series can be represented by sum of these factors
Y=T+C+S+I
T = long term trend
C = Cyclical trend (often over several years)
S = Seasonal trend (1 year cycle)
I = irregular movements (noise)
Brief procedure for time series analysis (according to M.R.Spiegel):
Steps:
1. Collect all data for the time series, ensure that the data are reliable. Related
information should also be collected
2. Draw a graph of the time series. Visual inspection often shows the presence of long
term, cyclical and seasonal variations
3. Construct the long term trend(by least square method).If the trend is non-linear use
log table.
4. Obtain a seasonal index if seasonal variation exist and adjust the data for these
variations
5. Adjust the data for trend. The resulting data will contain cyclic and random
fluctuations.
6. Represents cyclic variations of (5) on a graph paper. A similar procedure to (4) can
be used, if necessary to obtain cyclic indices
7. Forecasts and ranges of error can be made using adjusted data.
Exponential trend:
Past data are drawn on a logarithmic graph to give straight line projection for forecasting.
Mathematical expression is:
Ct = C0 (1 + m)t
+Where; m = mean annual rate of growth observed during T years.
C0 = consumption in reference year
By converting the data to log10, the graph become straight line as below
log Ct = a + bt where Ct = a + bt
a = log C0
b = log (1+m)
Example T = 21 is the period of reference on which the calculation is based
to = 0; t20 = T 1 = 21 1 = 20;
Consumption in reference year t = 0 is 4862 GWh (assumed)
Then a = log C0 = log 4862 = 3.686789;
Mean rate of annual growth = 10% (assumed) = 0.1
1 + m = 1 + 0.1 = 1.1; b = log(1 + m) = 0.0413296;
Hence log Ct = 3.686789 + 0.0413296t
Suppose to find forecast consumption at end of 25 years n = 25;
t = T 1 + n = 21 1 + 5 = 20 years
The forecast will be
log C25 = 3.686789 + 0.0413296x25 = 4.721604
Taking anti log
C25 = 52674 GWh
 Regression model - Relates load to other economic, competitive, or weather variables and
estimates an equation using the least squares technique (statistical analysis)
Several years quarterly history to obtain good meaningful relationships is necessary
Regression of time series data is a common occurrence in utilities where tracking is important measures
of performance on a weekly, monthly or quarterly basis conducted
Using judgment on the future cyclical component of this series, loads might be forecasted for the next
year and used to schedule monthly power cut etc.

Econometric model - Its a system of interdependent regression equations that describes energy
sales.
The parameters of the regression equations are usually estimated simultaneously. These models are
relatively expensive to develop.
However due to system of equations inherent in such models, they will better express the problems
involved than ordinary regression equation and hence will predict turning points more accurately.

Strategic forecasting - is becoming increasingly important and involves the explicitly examination
of the factors and issues affecting the future growth. It recognizes the impact that policy
decisions can have on future load.
It involves explicit examination of consumer operations,
their current and potential demand for electricity
issues affecting future growth.
Their options with respect to production process
Switching alternatives
Energy conservation technologies
CEA Practice :

Consumption in domestic, commercial and miscellaneous is estimated on the basis of number of

consumer and their specific consumption.

Number of consumers:
The past growth rate in the number of consumers in studied for each state/area.
In states where power shortages have been experienced in the recent past, growth rate to be
adopted for the forecast is decided after long-term time series analysis of the growth in the
number of consumers.
In case of state/area where the past performance is poor, allowance is made in the growth rate to
account for increased tendency of house hold electrification.
The higher level of electrification planned in certain states is also kept in view while deciding
growth rate.

Consumption per consumer

Energy consumption per consumer is estimated after studying the past trends and taking into account
the anticipated improvements in standard of living.
A grand increase in the level of electricity consumption per consumer has been noticed in all states
and UTs. It is expected that raising trend will continue.
This trend as well as the effect of power cuts in the recent past is also kept in view while determining
the specific consumption in the future.
CEA Practice :

Public lighting and public water works:

The estimates of electricity consumption in these two categories are based on estimated connected load (kw) and
the average consumption per kw of connected load (kwh/kw).
The connected load is projected on the basis of trend keeping in mind the likely increase in public lighting and water
supply faculties.
The no of hours of operation are determined on the basis of past trends and making adjustments for the effect of
power cuts.

Irrigation and dewatering agriculture pump sets:

Forecasting the energy consumption is modeled as;
Y = NSH
where;
Y = Electricity consumption in kWh
N = Number of pump sets as at the middle of the year
S = Average capacity of pump set in kW as the middle of the year
H = Average consumption per year per kW of connected load
The program of energization of pump sets for the plan period is decided by each state basis of available resources,
ultimate ground water potential and availability of ground water
It is raising in trend in most of the state. This factor is kept in view while projecting the average consumption in the
future.
Industrial

Railway traction

Bulk supply to non-industrial consumers

Total energy consumption of consumers end

CEA Practice :

Industrial- the sub categories of industry are

LT industries
HT industries with a demand less than 1 MW
HT industries with a demand 1 MW and above
o The first two are projected on the basis of past trends and scope for development in future
o Third- the projection is made separately for each industrial unit considering the anticipated
product on the basis of information furnished by industry units

Railway traction
The estimate of this category depends on the track electrification programme envisaged
by the railway authorities, it is used to form the basis for projections.

Bulk supply to non-industrial consumers

This covers
Electricity in research establishments, poet trusts, MES, supply to power projects etc.
The projection is based on past trend

Total energy consumption of consumers end-

The estimate of total energy consumption at consumers end is arrived by
aggregating the sector wise projections
Electricity Usage:
Projections of demand of energy determined by the 17th power survey committee for the five electricity
regions is shown.

ALL INDIA AND STATE/UT WISE FORECAST

2004-05 2005 - 06 2006 - 07 2007 - 08 2008 - 09 2009 - 10 2010-11 2011-12

Peak Load (in GW) 90.221 97.269 104.867 113.059 121.891 131.413 141.678 152.746
Electrical Energy
Requirement (in TWh) 602.787 654.603 697.961 744.515 794.561 848.39 906.316 968.659

ALL INDIA & STATE/UT WISE FORECAST

( including all utilities)

1200
1000
Peak Load (in GW)
800
600
Electrical Energy
400
Requirement (in TWh)
200
0
2004- 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010- 2011-
05 - 06 - 07 - 08 - 09 - 10 11 12
year
 LONG TERM FORECAST AT POWER STATION BUS BARS (UTILITIES)

2011 - 2012 2016 - 2017 2021 - 2022

Peak Electric Load (MW) 1,52,746.097 2,18,208.593 2,98,253.241

Electrical Energy Requirement (GWh) 9,68,658.543 13,92,066.048 19,14,508.233

LONG TERM FORECAST AT POWER STATION BUS

BARS (UTILITIES)

2500000

2000000
Peak Electric Load (MW)
1500000

1000000 Electrical Energy

Requirement (GWh)
500000

0
2011 -2012 2016 - 2017 2021-2022
YEAR
 FORECASTING MODELING
Factors which influence the prediction of load are;

Time dependent factors

Weather dependent factors

Random factors

other factors effect of Distributed generating devices, effects of rate-tariff,

changeover to winter or summer time.
 FORECASTING MODELING
Time dependent factors
Power systems exhibits a time dependent pattern of electric load demand
These factors are regular, irregular or random in nature
Regular patterns- exhibited during the time of day, day of week, week of month and
yearly growth
Irregular patterns- exhibited during the holidays, weekends, special days etc and load
requirements tend to differ on these days than on other days.
Some time the load requirement do not follow any pattern because of weather or other
factors
The load patterns are different on week days and week ends with possibilities of 2-4
groups namely weekdays, weekends and pre and post week ends respectively
Tuesday to Thursday - week days
Monday - as pre weekends
Friday - as post weekends
Saturday and Sunday - weekends
From the past data (typically 2-5 years) periods in a year can be divided into time scales
(hourly, daily, etc) which exhibit an established load curve and others with a
comparatively variable load curve
 FORECASTING MODELING
Weather dependent factors
Weather causes load variation as it affects domestic load, public lighting, commercial load etc
Therefore it is essential to choose relevant weather variables and model their influence on power
consumption
Principle weather variables are- temperature, cloud cover, visibility and precipitation.
First two factors affect domestic/office (eg heating, cooling) loads and other factor affects lighting
loads as they affect day light illumination
Temperature and load are not linearly related.
variations in temperature in one temperature ranges and/or other seasons a 1O C change can
change load demand by 1%
cloud cover and visibility
Directly affect day light illumination forcing increase in domestic and public lighting loads.
cloud cover is measured in terms of height of cloud cover,
its thickness( thin, medium or thick)
cloud amount
time of occurrence and
duration before crossing over a population area/zone
Visibility is measured in terms of m/km with fog indication.
Random factors-causes large errors in load forecasts
It is difficult to accurately model their actual impact on load demand.
Which includes
Factory strike and popular TV programmes
other factors effect of Distributed generating devices, effects of rate-tariff,
changeover to winter or summer time.
 FORECASTING MODELING
Mathematical modeling simulation
In modeling the total load is considered to be the sum of total of various components due to
various factors.
These factors need to be measured and interrelated with load requirements.
Thus, this technique requires individual modeling of each load type, and identifying their
interrelationship to arrive future load requirements. This is mathematical modeling.
Mathematics is language that allows us to represent physical problems in a form that a computer can
understand.
Methods available for extrapolation modeling
Exponential smoothing
Pattern recognition
Spectral expansion
Stochastic
Linear/nonlinear/multiple regression
State estimation
Least square
Probability
Time series models-auto regressive
Moving average
Mixed auto regressive/moving average (ARMA)
 Mathematical modeling simulation

In extrapolation future load is treated as an extension of the past and the load curve based on
past data is suitably adjusted to reflect growth trend.
This technique involves the detection of trends for various parameters, fitting a trend curve
Such as
Straight line y = a + bx
Parabola y = a + bx + cx2
S curve y = a + bx + cx2 + dx3
Exponential y = becx
Modified exponential y = a + becx
Logistics y = 1/(a + becx )

Where y is a variable to be fitted

x is time in assigned frame (in a day. Week)
And a,b,c,d coefficients to be calculated

Domestic sector Model adopted for projecting the anticipated demand is:
log Y = a+b logX
Where,
Y = Energy consumption
a & b = Constants to be determined by Regression Analysis,
X = Private Final Consumption Expenditure
Commercial and other sectors Similar model of domestic sector is
adopted projecting the energy demand.

Typical requirement of good load forecast programme are in terms of:

accuracy of results

its adaptive nature

being computationally efficient

being easy to implement and use

Computer programs like PEEPS, COMMEND and INDEPTH is commercially developed by

EPRI (USA) for residential, commercial and industrial sectors load forecasting
Single factor modeling

Domestic - It makes use of population forecast and no. of domestic consumers

and per capita consumption.

Model for energy forecast:

Ct = K + 0.7167 log GDP

Where,
K = constant obtained from regression method
GDP = Gross domestic product

Industrial - Two trends are taken into account for industrial projection:

Index of production and growth in the sale of electricity by the utility per unit
growth in industry.

Number of workers employed and electrical energy consumed per worker.

 Agriculture - Trend taken into account for forecasting electrical energy sales is:

Installation of irrigation pumps in view fixed by the Planning Commission and

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.

Consumption of electricity per pump.

Other Sectors Trend graphs based on time series study is established for
street lighting, water works, railways, auxiliary consumption etc.

Based on the actual past energy consumption and national income, both the log-
log and linear forms fits into the relation as;

Y = 68.90 + 0.592E
Where,
Y is national income in billion of rupees
E=total energy consumption in million tons of coal
replacement
CEA makes use of computer models like EGEAS and ISPLAN for
long-term power planning
 SPATIAL LOAD FORECASTING
Distribution planning requires a feeder by feeder load forecast over the period under
consideration.

It can not be done by extrapolation of existing feeder loads using some universal growth rate
First-A different consumer mix on each feeder will lead to differential growth rate: -requires reinforcement
Second-electricity demand growth is a combination of increase in specific consumption and increase in number of
connections:-it is more likely to be associated with expansion of system due to urban development
Forecasting is done in two means for reliable and consistent spatial load forecasts:

Energy and / or demand metering (load of mixed rural and urban feeder) is carried out at
distribution feeder, distribution losses is determined.

Electricity demand growth in inner city areas is due to increase in specific consumption by the
consumer base.

Fig. Typical load of mixed rural and urban feeder

 PEAK LOAD FORECAST
Forecast of load factor estimates the system peak.

Annual System Peak (P) = Annual energy forecast / (8760 x LF)

Fig. Flow diagram for finding peak demand

 REACTIVE LOAD FORECAST

Usage of active load forecast with power factor prediction estimates

reactive load forecast.

Applications:

Security analysis
Voltage/reactive power scheduling etc.
 REFERENCES
A.S.Pabla, Electrical Power Systems Planning, Macmillan India Limited, 1998.

V.K.Mehta and Rohit Mehta, Principles of Power System,S.Chand and Co., 1st Multicolour Edition, 2005.

Demand Forecasting for Electricity, www.regulationbodyofknowledge.org/documents/044.pdf.

All India Regionwise Generating Installed Capacity (MW) of Power Utilities Including Allocated Shares
In Joint And Central Sector Utilities,
www.cea.nic.in/power_sec_reports/Executive_Summary/2010.../8.pdf.

Report on 17th Electric Power Survey of India, www.powermin.nic.in/generation/pdf/17th%20EPS.pdf or

www.cea.nic.in/planning/17TH%20EPSR-Highlights.pdf.

Central Electricity Authority, www.cea.nic.in/cea-archive/body/Reports/.../EEG_Oct%2009.pdf

Energy Scenario and energy Mix
in India
Energy Scenario and Energy Mix

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any
country.
In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a
critical importance in view of the ever increasing energy needs requiring
huge investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following
criteria:
Primary and Secondary energy
Commercial and Non commercial energy
Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
Classification of Energy Resources

Based on usability of Energy

Primary resources
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
uranium,
Hydro energy
Secondary resources
Steam
Thermal Energy
Electrical Energy
 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as
wood).
Other primary
energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity.
Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
energy sources;
for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.
Primary energy can also be used directly.
Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be
used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants
Classification of Energy Resources

Based on commercial application

Commercial energy
Electricity
Petrol
Diesel
Gas
Non-Commercial energy
wood
Animal dung cake
Crop residue
 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy.
By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and
refined petroleum products.
Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy.
Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households.
These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in
energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, for
drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for
irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water
Classification of Energy Resources

Based on tradition use (1973)

Conventional
Fossil fuels( coal, oil and gas)
uranium,
Hydro energy
Non-Conventional
Solar
Wind
Biomass
Classification of Energy Resources

Based on long-term availability

Non-renewable
Fossil fuels( coal, oil and gas)
uranium
Renewable
Solar
Wind
Biomass
Hydro
Geothermal
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially

inexhaustible.
Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar power,
geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power.
The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be
harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants.
Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and gas, which are likely to deplete with time
 Classification of Energy Resources
Based on origin
1. Fossil fuels
2. Nuclear Energy 7. Geothermal Energy
3. Hydro Energy
4. Solar Energy 8. Tidal Energy
5. Wind Energy
6. Biomass Energy
9. Ocean thermal Energy
10. Ocean wave Energy
11. Electrochemical Energy
 Global Primary Energy Reserves
Coal
The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million tones
by end of 2003. The USA had the largest share of the global reserve (25.4%)
followed by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India was 4th in the list with
8.6%.
Oil
The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the
end of 2003.
Saudi Arabia had the largest share of the reserve with almost 23%.
(One barrel of oil is approximately 160 liters)
Gas
The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic meters
by the end of 2003.
The Russian Federation had the largest share of the reserve with almost
27%.
World oil and gas reserves are estimated at just 45 years and 65 years
respectively. Coal is likely to last a little over 200 years
Sector wise Energy in India
Energy Needs of Growing Economy
Energy yield Ratio
Indian Power Sector
 The Power System Issues

Diminishing Resources
Environmental Threats
Supply - Demand Gap
 The Crisis !

Global warming
CO2
Carbon emissions CH4
N2O
Polluted air SF6
HFC
Contaminated water PFC
Irregular climate
Floods & droughts
% Share of Greenhouse Gases
CO2 Emissions by Sector,
1990-2030
18 000
16 000
million tonnes of CO 2

14 000
12 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
1990 2002 2010 2020 2030
Power Generation Other Transformation Industry Transport Other Sectors

CO2 emissions in power generation and transport are expected to

increase the most
 Supply-Demand Gap: CAUSES

Insufficient growth rate of generation capacity

Growth rate of Energy

Energy GDP Elasticity =
Growth rate of GDP

GDP (gross domestic product)

= consumption + gross investment + government spending + (exports imports)
YEAR % T&D LOSS

2000-01 32.86%
2001-02 38.86%
2005-06 34.54%
2010-2011 25%

Source:
PEAK POWER SHORTAGE 2011-12
 Supply-Demand Gap: CAUSES.

Large difference between PEAK and LEAN demands

Lean demand is one third of peak value
Poor Tariff system
Poor PLF (Plant Load Factor)
Weak tie Line
T & D Losses
T&D Losses

Country T&D Losses

25% India
State T&D Losses
7% China Sikkim 78%
TN & AP 18%
6% US

8% is allowable T&D Losses

 .Remedial Measures

Load management to reduce peak-lean difference

Load shifting by Peak Clipping & Valley Filling
-Pumped hydro storage
ToD Tariff
 .Remedial Measures

Modernisation of power plants to improve PLF

Rehabilitation through enhanced maintenance improves plant availability
Cost of rehabilitation is normally one-third of that of a new plant
Residual life assessment necessary after 1,00,000 hrs of operation
Diagnostic testing for condition assessment of critical components
 .Remedial Measures

Increased transmission/subtransmission voltages to reduce T&D loss

and to increase power transfer capacity
Prevent pilferage(stealing)
Unaccounted customers
Minimisation of metering loss
Power loss of 4 6 W in electromechanical type energy meters.
 .Remedial Measures

HVDC and FACTS to solve power transfer problems in synch networks

Optimum loading of transmission line is possible with HVDC or
FACTS
FACTS controllers can be retrofitted into existing line; Right of way
is a problem for HVDC lines
FACTS devices either control the line impedance or inject a phase
shift
FACTS provides VAR compensation
FACTS increases the stability margin and varies power angle
Special Dampers are used for oscillation damping to increase the
dynamic stability
Power can be transferred in either direction of HVDC link
Stability limit can be raised close to Ampacity
- Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth
rate of 8%
- Reliable of power
- Quality power
- Optimum power cost
- Commercial viability of power industry
- Power for all
Strategies to achieve the objectives:
Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation, optimization of capacity
utilization, controlling the input cost, optimisation of fuel mix, Technology upgradation
and utilization of Non Conventional energy sources
Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid including Interstate
connections, Technology upgradation & optimization of transmission cost.
Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on System
upgradation, loss reduction, theft control, consumer service orientation, quality power
supply commercialization, Decentralized distributed generation and supply for rural
areas.
Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and making the sector
commercially viable.
Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the power sector.
Conservation Strategy to optimise the utilization of electricity with focus on Demand
Side management, Load management and Technology upgradation to provide energy
efficient equipment / gadgets.
Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to enhance the
general public awareness
 Cogeneration
The generation of electricity and useful heat jointly, especially the
utilization of the steam left over from electricity generation for heating.
There is large scope for cogeneration of nearly 50,000 MW in India
Industries such as sugar, textile, alcohol, paper, petro-chemicals and
metallurgical.
It should be made mandatory for cement, steel, aluminium, fertilizers,
chemicals plants and other heavy industries to install captive power
Consumers could utilize waste heat produced in heavy industries having
load more than 5 MW (such as steel, aluminium plants or group of
induction and arc furnaces.
Cogeneration facility produces electrical energy and other forms of
useful thermal energy (heat and steam) used for industrial , commercial ,
heating or cooling purposes.
It is not a new technology. It has around since the turn of the century.
The modern technology is more efficient having steam pressure of
minimum 45 kg/cm2 and high temperature up to 5000C.
 Cogeneration contd
To determine the feasibility of cogeneration, economic and energy
factors must be considered (rates of purchase and sale of electricity
energy, cost of the equipment in relation to the energy saved)
Cogeneration systems are more expensive and cost more to operate
and maintain than systems that produce thermal energy. Degree of
waste recovery, duty cycle, capital cost, fuel and electricity prices,
taxes, reliability and size are all important factors to consider in
deciding on cogeneration.
Two basic process of cogeneration
Topping cycle process
Bottoming cycle process
Topping cycle process
Electricity is produced first and waste energy is recovered in the form of
thermal energy. The steam required for the process is extracted from the
exhaust of the turbine or from an intermediate stage.
Example: Gas turbine or diesel engine burns fuel to spin a shaft connected to
a generator to produce electricity. This is recaptured in a waste heat recovery
boiler which produces steam from hot exhaust gas which is used directly
thermal process
 Cogeneration contd
Variation of this concept, also known as combined cycle system, is to
utilize the steam generated in the heat recovery boiler for driving a
steam turbine and draw the required process steam either from
exhaust or from intermediate stage.
Bottoming cycle process
The thermal energy is first used in the process and waste energy recovered
from that process is used to produce electricity
Example: A furnace is used in smelting or forming process. In such process
waste heat recovery boiler recaptures the unused energy and uses it to
produce steam to drive steam turbine generator which in turn produces
electricity.
Evaporative cooling system of reheating furnaces are also typical example of
the bottoming cycle
Around 10000 MW can be harvested from sugar industry
Unit price for cogeneration

Unit cost of generation from a new power plant based on relevant

conventional source (thermal power plants based on coal)
Unit cost of generation = 1.2 (delivered cost of 0.7 kg of coal) + 0.2*(capital
investment/kW)/(8760 * plant load factor)
Unit cost of generation from the relevant conventional alternative in
case of shot supply (DG sets)
Unit cost of generation = 1.2 (delivered cost of 330 cc of fuel) + 0.3*(capital
investment/kW)/(Annual generation per kW of installed capacity)
Unit cost of generation through biomass gasification
= Delivered cost of 1 kg of prepared biomass + delivered
cost of 100 cc fuel + (0.2*delivered cost of 330 cc of fuel)
+ (0.3*capital investment /kW)
Masnedo CHP power station in Denmark
This station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent greenhouses are heated by
district heating from the plant.

Tuticorin Thermal power plant: An industrial plant in India has become the
first in the world to capture its own carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and use
it to produce valuable chemicals, baking soda, glass, detergents and plastic
(Patented chemical process).
 Wheeling
In electric power transmission, wheeling is the transportation of
electric energy (megawatt-hours) from within an electrical grid to an
electrical load outside the grid boundaries. Two types of wheeling are
1) a wheel-through, where the electrical power generation and
the load are both outside the boundaries of the transmission system
and
2) a wheel-out, where the generation resource is inside the
boundaries of the transmission system but the load is outside.
Wheeling often refers to the scheduling of the energy transfer from
one Balancing Authority to another.
Since the wheeling of electric energy requires use of a
transmission system, there is often an associated fee which goes to the
transmission owners. In a simpler sense, it refers to the process of
transmission of electricity through the transmission lines.
 Wheeling contd
What are the disadvantages of wheeling?
One problematic aspect of wheeling is determination of the value of transmitted
power. In other words, how much should someone charge for allowing a electric
generator to transmit power through its transmission lines? Private utilities also
argue that access to too many parties will reduce the reliability of the system.
However, utilities have been wheeling for years. The alleged problems with
increased access to transmission are attempts by the investor-owned utilities to
restrict their competition. Of course, increased access to transmission should be
implemented carefully to protect the integrity of the system.
Why is wheeling important to independent energy producers?
Independent energy producers do not have the power of eminent domain and
generally do no own transmission lines. Therefore they are dependent upon
utilities to move their power to market. In a competitive marketplace, where
independent energy producers are competing with utilities or their affiliates,
access to transmission can be used to limit the participation of independent
energy producers.
 Banking in power system
If a household or firm are generating their own electricity and they
produce more than they use, they can 'bank' the electricity by
putting it into the grid to reduce subsequent periods when they
produce less than they consume, or it can be shifted to organizations
which they have an agreement with. This allows the grid to be used
as a giant battery and a shared battery for a firm with multiple
locations, some of which have generation.

This is useful for seasonal or cyclical generation sources such as run-

of-the-river hydro, or variances seasonally in winds (e.g. high in
winter, calm in summer)
Energy storage

Energy storage is the capture of energy

produced at one time for use at a later time. A
device that stores energy is sometimes called an
accumulator. Energy comes in multiple forms
including radiation, chemical, gravitational
potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated
temperature, latent heat and kinetic.
Grid energy storage (also called large-scale
energy storage) is a collection of methods used
to store electrical energy on a large scale within
an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is
stored during times when production (especially
from intermittent power plants such as
renewable electricity sources such as wind
power, tidal power, solar power) exceeds
consumption, and returned to the grid when
production falls below consumption.
 Benefits of Energy storage
Managing peak load by feeding power to the grids - at times when consumption that
cannot be deferred or delayed exceeds production. In this way, electricity production
need not be drastically scaled up and down to meet momentary consumption
instead, transmission from the combination of generators plus storage facilities is
maintained at a more constant level.
Any electrical power grid must adapt energy production to energy consumption,
both of which vary drastically over time. Any combination of energy storage and
demand response has these advantages:
fuel-based power plants (i.e. coal, oil, gas, nuclear) can be more efficiently and easily operated at constant production
levels
electricity generated by (or with the potential to be generated by) intermittent sources can be stored and used later,
whereas it would otherwise have to be transmitted for sale elsewhere, or simply wasted
peak generating or transmission capacity can be reduced by the total potential of all storage plus deferrable loads,
saving the expense of this capacity
more stable pricing: the cost of the storage and/or demand management is included in pricing so there is less variation
in power rates charged to customers, or alternatively (if rates are kept stable by law) less loss to the utility from
expensive on-peak wholesale power rates when peak demand must be met by imported wholesale power
emergency preparednessvital needs can be met reliably even with no transmission or generation going on while non-
essential needs are deferred
Pumped hydro-energy storage
Compressed air energy storage
Small scale Compressed air energy storage
Thermal energy storage

District heating accumulation tower from

Theiss near Krems an der Donau in Lower
Austria with a thermal capacity of 2 GWh
Hydrogen energy storage system

The hydrogen-electrolysis system from Siemens

in Energiepark Mainz generates hydrogen from
surplus electricity. The plant can accommodate
up to six megawatts of electricity.
The horizontal pressurised hydrogen tanks are
used for temporarily storing the hydrogen
produced.
Chemical energy storage system - Batteries
Flow batteries energy storage

Flywheel energy storage

Power trading and pooling
The electric power cannot be stored (in large scale) and power demand must
equal power generation at any time.
Therefore power pooling is an important consideration for power supply in this
century
String of regional grid companies and national grid company compete for whole
sale power generation. It is wholesale market in bulk supply, the pool, in which
spot price is determined every half-an-hour in the national power load curve
period though competitive bidding by individual generators.
The pool itself exists as a mechanism to allow trading or sharing between power
utilities and power generators.
Long-term contracts in sales and purchases of electricity are made between
participating utilities/generating companies according to set of rules evolved.
In order to improve the prospects for electricity trade, it will be necessary to
formulate commercial guidelines for wheeling of power and rational tariff
structure to encourage the selling and buying of energy for mutual benefit.
Power trading and pooling contd
The settlement system in UK grid calculates the prices and payments due
under the pool-wheeling arrangements, while the grid operator seeks to
schedule and dispatch generating units, subject to certain technical
constraints, to meet demand, including the margin for reserve.
This is done on the merit order which is constructed from generators offers of
prices and the availability of their generating units.
All offers in the relevant period, together with a forecast of the demand and
planned reserve are fed into the computer program which seeks to match the
supply and demand at least cost.
At this stage any physical constraints is then produced showing the selected
generating sets. Generating capacity scheduled for energy in the revised
unconstrained schedule receives pool purchase price (PPP) which is a single
price determined for each half-an hour and compromising two elements
system marginal price (SMP) and the capacity element.
SMP is derived from the offer prices of the marginal generating sets scheduled
in the unconstrained schedule for the relevant period; the capacity element is
calculated according to the loss of load probability (LOLP)
Power trading and pooling contd
The price which the national grid company pays to the generators is
called pool input price (PIP) and the price charged from the public
electricity suppliers is called pool output price. The pool is a spot
market which operates in real time.
To encourage generation from renewable energy sources, the
consumers are obliged to purchase electricity from such generators
under non-fossil fuel obligations.
An underlying principle of pool rules is that for any day, the daily
payments are through the pool must balance.
The recovery from the supplier pool members of the amount to be
paid through the pool is at a single price- the pool selling price (PSP)
The difference between PPP and PSP is called uplift which is required
to pay from items such as the costs of ancillary services, payments
related to the differences between the raised unconstrained
schedule and actual operation of sets
 Concept of smart grid
A "smart grid" is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operational and energy measures
including smart meters, smart appliances, renewable energy resources, and energy efficient
resources. Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of
electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.
Technical evolution
Smart grid technologies emerged from earlier attempts at using electronic control, metering, and
monitoring.
In the 1980s, automatic meter reading was used for monitoring loads from large customers, and
evolved into the Advanced Metering Infrastructure of the 1990s, whose meters could store how
electricity was used at different times of the day.
Smart meters add continuous communications so that monitoring can be done in real time, and
can be used as a gateway to demand-response aware devices and "smart sockets" in the home.
Early forms of such demand side management technologies were dynamic demand aware
devices that passively sensed the load on the grid by monitoring changes in the power supply
frequency. Devices such as industrial and domestic air conditioners, refrigerators and heaters
adjusted their duty cycle to avoid activation during times the grid was suffering a peak condition
 Features of smart grid
Reliability - The smart grid makes use of technologies such as state estimation,[13] that improve fault detection and
allow self-healing of the network without the intervention of technicians. This will ensure more reliable supply of
electricity, and reduced vulnerability to natural disasters or attack.
Flexibility in network topology - Next-generation transmission and distribution infrastructure will be better able to
handle possible bidirectional energy flows, allowing for distributed generation such as from photovoltaic panels on
building roofs, but also the use of fuel cells, charging to/from the batteries of electric cars, wind turbines, pumped
hydroelectric power, and other sources. Classical grids were designed for one-way flow of electricity, but if a local sub-
network generates more power than it is consuming, the reverse flow can raise safety and reliability issues. A smart
grid aims to manage these situations.
Efficiency - The total load connected to the power grid can vary significantly over time. Although the total load is the
sum of many individual choices of the clients, the overall load is not a stable, slow varying, increment of the load if a
popular television program starts and millions of televisions will draw current instantly. Traditionally, to respond to a
rapid increase in power consumption, faster than the start-up time of a large generator, some spare generators are
put on a dissipative standby mode. A smart grid may warn all individual television sets, or another larger customer, to
reduce the load temporarily (to allow time to start up a larger generator) or continuously (in the case of limited
resources). Using mathematical prediction algorithms it is possible to predict how many standby generators need to
be used, to reach a certain failure rate. In the traditional grid, the failure rate can only be reduced at the cost of more
standby generators. In a smart grid, the load reduction by even a small portion of the clients may eliminate the
problem.
Demand response support - Demand response support allows generators and loads to interact in an automated
fashion in real time, coordinating demand to flatten spikes. Eliminating the fraction of demand that occurs in these
spikes eliminates the cost of adding reserve generators, cuts wear and tear and extends the life of equipment, and
allows users to cut their energy bills by telling low priority devices to use energy only when it is cheapest.
 Peak curtailment/leveling and time of use pricing - To reduce demand during the high cost peak usage periods,
communications and metering technologies inform smart devices in the home and business when energy demand is
high and track how much electricity is used and when it is used. It also gives utility companies the ability to reduce
consumption by communicating to devices directly in order to prevent system overloads. Examples would be a utility
reducing the usage of a group of electric vehicle charging stations or shifting temperature set points of air
conditioners in a city.[15] To motivate them to cut back use and perform what is called peak curtailment or peak
leveling, prices of electricity are increased during high demand periods, and decreased during low demand periods.
Sustainability - The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly variable renewable
energy sources such as solar power and wind power, even without the addition of energy storage. Current network
infrastructure is not built to allow for many distributed feed-in points, and typically even if some feed-in is allowed at
the local (distribution) level, the transmission-level infrastructure cannot accommodate it. Rapid fluctuations in
distributed generation, such as due to cloudy or gusty weather, present significant challenges to power engineers
who need to ensure stable power levels through varying the output of the more controllable generators such as gas
turbines and hydroelectric generators. Smart grid technology is a necessary condition for very large amounts of
renewable electricity on the grid for this reason.
Market-enabling - The smart grid allows for systematic communication between suppliers (their energy price) and
consumers (their willingness-to-pay), and permits both the suppliers and the consumers to be more flexible and
sophisticated in their operational strategies. Only the critical loads will need to pay the peak energy prices, and
consumers will be able to be more strategic in when they use energy. Generators with greater flexibility will be able
to sell energy strategically for maximum profit, whereas inflexible generators such as base-load steam turbines and
wind turbines will receive a varying tariff based on the level of demand and the status of the other generators
currently operating. The overall effect is a signal that awards energy efficiency, and energy consumption that is
sensitive to the time-varying limitations of the supply. At the domestic level, appliances with a degree of energy
storage or thermal mass (such as refrigerators, heat banks, and heat pumps) will be well placed to 'play' the market
and seek to minimise energy cost by adapting demand to the lower-cost energy support periods. This is an extension
of the dual-tariff energy pricing mentioned above.
Platform for advanced services - As with other industries, use of robust two-way communications, advanced
sensors, and distributed computing technology will improve the efficiency, reliability and safety of power delivery
and use. It also opens up the potential for entirely new services or improvements on existing ones, such as fire
monitoring and alarms that can shut off power, make phone calls to emergency services, etc.