ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR

INTRODUCTION
Definition
It is the field of study that investigates the
impact of individuals, groups and structure on
behaviour in the organisation for the purpose of
applying such knowledge towards improving
organizational effectiveness
It is a systematic study of the behaviour and
attitudes of both individuals and groups within
the organisations
Concerns itself with the scientific study or the
behavioral process which occurs in work
settings
 Focuses on understanding and explaining
individual and group behaviours in organisations
It is concerned with what people do in an
organisation and how that behaviour affects
performance
The understanding, prediction and
management of human behaviour in the
organisations
More micro than macro
 OB is a field of study that investigates the
impact that individuals, groups, and structure
have on behaviour within an organization.
OB focuses on improving productivity,
reducing absenteeism and turnover, and
increasing employee job satisfaction and
organizational commitment.
OB uses systematic study to improve
predictions of behaviour.
OT vs. OB vs. HRM

Organizational Theory
Focuses on the organisation as the unit of
analysis. Organizational attributes such as
goals, technology and culture are the
subject of study.
Organizational theory often uses an
across-organizational approach or macro
perspective in gathering new knowledge.
 Human resources management
Attempts to apply the principles of the
behavioral sciences in the workplace
While OB is somewhat more concept oriented,
HRM is more concerned with applied
techniques and behavioral technology.
HRM tries to provide a link between the
individual and the organisation by designing and
implementing systems to attract, develop and
motivate individuals within the organisation
OB OT
Emphasis on the Focuses largely on
scientific study of organizational and
behavioral environmental
phenomena at phenomena
individual and group Level of analysis -
level
Macro/theory
Level of analysis
oriented
-Micro/theory oriented
 HRM
Focuses on the
application of
behavioral knowledge
in selecting, placing,
and training personal
Level of analysis -
Micro/application
oriented field of study
The Rigour of OB

OB looks at consistencies
What is common about behaviour, and
helps predictability?
OB is more than common sense
Systematic study, based on scientific
evidence
OB has few absolutes
OB takes a contingency approach
Considers behaviour in context
Beyond Common Sense

Systematic Study
Looking at relationships, attempting to
attribute causes and effects and drawing
conclusions based on scientific evidence
Behaviour is generally predictable
There are differences between individuals

There are fundamental consistencies

There are rules (written & unwritten) in almost

every setting
Exhibit 1-3
Basic OB Model, Stage I

Organization systems level

Group level

Individual level
Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field
Psychology
Sociology
Social Psychology
Anthropology
Political Science
Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field

EXHIBIT 1-3a
Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (contd)

EXHIBIT 1-3b
Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (contd)

EXHIBIT 1-3c
Contributing Disciplines to the
OB Field (contd)

EXHIBIT 1-3d
Exhibit 1-2
Toward an OB Discipline
Behavioural Contribution Unit of Output
science analysis
Learning
Motivation
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Psychology Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress
Individual

Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Intergroup behaviour
Sociology
Formal organization theory Study of
Organizational technology Group Organizational
Organizational change Behaviour
Organizational culture

Behavioural change
Attitude change
Social psychology Communication
Group processes
Group decision making
Organization
Comparative values system
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Anthropology
Organizational culture
Organizational environment

Conflict
Political science Intraorganizational politics
Power
WHY BOTHER STUDY
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

1. Practical application
2. Personal growth
3. Increased knowledge
Practical application
There are important practical benefits to
understanding the principles of organizational
behaviour:

Development of personal styles of leadership can be

guided by knowledge of the results of studies of
OB that have attempted to relate leadership styles
to situational requirements

The choice of problem solving strategy or the

selection of appropriate employee appraisal format
can be guided by an understanding of the results of
studies in the associated topic areas
Practical application (cont..)
In the area of performance enhancement, benefits can
be gained by applying knowledge gathered in the field
of OB

Because the environment in which the organisation

operates is increasing in complexity, one must
understand how to design effective organizational
structures and how to relate to individuals from diverse
and often international background

Being able to deal effectively with others in

organizational settings requires understanding of OB
Practical application (cont..)
Attracting and developing talented individuals
are 2 issues critically important to the survival
and prosperity of an organisation

Emphasis of human element instead of on

technical financial and other tangible resources
often separate competing organisations when it
comes to organizational performance. This
occurs because all serious competitors in a
given industry are likely to have attained nearly
the same level of technical sophistication
2.PERSONAL GROWTH

The second reason for studying OB is the

personal fulfillment we gain form
understanding our fellow human

Understanding others may also lead to greater

self-knowledge and self insight

Such personal growth is an aspect of

education that is often cited as the greatest
benefit of studying the liberal arts and sciences
Personal growth (cont)
Advancement in the business world
It is also important for advancement in business world it can
make a difference when it comes to advancing beyond an
entry level position.
Entry level hiring are based largely on technical competency,
such as certification in a specialized area e.g. CPA. Bachelors
degree, MBA etc.
Promotions however are often based on more that mere
technical competency.
They are based on demonstrated abilities to understand and
work effectively with superiors, peer and subordinated.
In short, an understanding of organizational behaviour may be
invaluable to you once you have that first job and seek to
distinguish yourself
3.INCREASED KNOWLEDGE

To gather knowledge about people in a work setting

At minimum, the filed seeks to gather knowledge for
its own sake just like some sciences like Physics and
chemistry; the practical use of certain findings may not
be practical for years.
Same could apply to Organizational Behaviour. Some
early theories were not of immediate use but are today
useful
Additionally, the study of OB can help one think in a
critical fashion about matters that relate to experience
of working. Such critical thinking ability can be useful
in analyzing both employees and personal problems
challenges facing organisations today
that have made it necessary for
managers to Study OB
Exhibit 1-1 Challenges Facing
the Workplace

Organizational Level
Productivity
Developing Effective Employees
Global Competition
Managing in the Global Village

Group Level
Working With Others
Workforce Diversity Workplace

Individual Level
Job Satisfaction
Empowerment
Behaving Ethically
Todays Challenges in the
Workplace
Challenges at the Individual Level
Job Satisfaction
Empowerment

Behaving Ethically

Challenges at the Group Level

Working With Others
Workforce Diversity
Todays Challenges in the
Canadian Workplace
Challenges at the Organizational Level
Productivity
Developing Effective Employees
Absenteeism
Turnover

Organizational Citizenship

Competition From the Global Environment

Managing and Working in a Global Village
Productivity

Productivity
A performance measure including
effectiveness and efficiency
Effectiveness
Achievement of goals
Efficiency
The ratio of effective work output to the
input required to produce the work
Effective Employees
Absenteeism
Failure to report to work
Turnover
Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal
from the organization
Organizational citizenship behaviour
Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an
employees formal job requirements, but is helpful
to the organization
Challenges facing organisations
1. Improving quality and productivity
More and more managers are confronted with the challenge of
having to improve their organisations productivity and the
quality of their products and services.
In improving quality and productivity, they are implementing
programmes like TQM and Business Process Reengineering
(BPR)
2. Improving people skills/interpersonal skills
OB gives the manager the opportunity to completely exercise
insight in behaviour, how to alter the behaviour and generally
improve interpersonal skills
The subject matter of OB helps both practicing managers as
well as potential managers to develop skills that can be used
on the job
Challenges facing organisations
(cont)
3. Managing workforce diversity
Workforce diversity has important implication for management
managers will need to shift their philosophy form treating
everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to
them in ways that will ensure employee retention and greater
productivity.
4. Responding to Globalization
The world today is continuous becoming global village.
Organisations no longer constraint themselves to national
boarders.
OB provides us with fundamental concepts to enable us focus
on how cultural differences might require managers to modify
their managerial practices
Challenges facing organisations
(cont)
5. Empowering people
Managers are empowering employees; they are
putting employees of what to do.
They have to learn how to give up control and
employees have to learn how to take up responsibility
for their work.
6. Stimulating innovativeness and change
This implies that today successful organisations must
foster innovation and master the art of change, or they
become extinct.
Victory will go to organisation that maintain flexibility,
continually improve quality and beating competition in
the market place
Challenges facing organisations
(cont)
7. Coping with temporariness
Today change is an ongoing activity for most manages.
Managing in the past could be characterized by long periods of
stability, interrupted occasionally by short periods of change.
But managing today could be described as long period of on
going change, interrupted occasionally by short periods of stability
The world that most managers and employees face today is that
of permanent temporariness.
There is permanent change in the jobs themselves, so workers
need to continuously update their knowledge and skills to perform
new jobs requirements
Today managers and employees must learn to cope with
temporariness. They have to live with flexibility and
unpredictability.
Challenges facing organisations
(cont)
8. Dealing with employees loyalty
Today, organisations seek to be lean, and mean by closing
down operations, moving to low cost regions, closing the less
profitable branches, and eliminating entire levels of managing
and replacing permanent employees with temporary ones.

These kinds of changes result in a decline of employee loyally.

Employees perceive that their employers are less committed to
them and as a result, they result to being committed to their
employer

The manager therefore is to devise ways to motivate workers

who feel less committed to their employers, but at the same
time maintain organizational global competitiveness
Challenges facing organisations
(cont)
9. Improving Ethical Behaviours
Organisations today are characterized by cut backs,
expectations of improving workers productivity and
tough competition in the market place.
Due to there pressures, employees feel pressured to
cut corners, break roles, and engage in other forms
of questionable practices could also be contracted to
give guidance to employees
Today managers need to create an ethically healthy
climate, living by example, for employees where they
can do their work productively and confront minimal
degree of ambiguity regarding what constitutes right
and wrong behaviour.
OB HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1900
1945)
First developed by Fredrick W. Taylor
(1856 1915)
Taylor aimed at making management a
science abased on a well recognized,
clearly defined and fixed principles
He replaced the rule of the thumb
method of scientific management
 He advocates the use of
Observation
Measurement
Experimentation
Analysis
Rationality
Reasoning

As a chief instrument for developing

managerial systems
 The basic components of scientific
management as propounded by Taylor are:
Determination of the standard of performance
Functional foremanship
Responsibilities of management
Differential piecework system of wage payment
Mental revolution
Determining the standards of performance
Taylor introduced the time and motion study
to identify exactly how long it takes to do a
task and identify and eliminate wasteful
motions
Functional foremanship
Here Taylor called for separation of planning
from doing where the functional foreman
(specialist) did the planning of various aspects
of work
Responsibility and management
Managers should accept responsibility for
planning, directing and organising
Managers should perform these functions in a
scientific way i.e. analyse all operations and
develop scientific methods of doing them
Workers should be scientifically selected and
trained
Managers should heartily cooperate with
workers to ensure that work is done according
to scientifically selected managers
Differential piece work system of payment
To ensure that workers turn out optimal production so that
workers who work hard get more

Mental revolution
Taylor held that the technique of determining work standards,
delimiting wasteful operations and differential piece rate system
of wage payment should benefit the worker in form of higher
wage payment and the employer in form of higher production and
this would result to a mental revolution between ,management
and workers
They would develop a cooperative rather than antagonistic
attitude towards each other
Criticism of Tailors Study

Saw man as an economic being - man

is only motivated by money
Saw that man can be programmed as a
machine in the development of
standards of performance
The Hawthorne Studies (1924
1945)
The Hawthorne Experiments
The experiments were carried out between
1927 and 1933 at the Chicago Hawthorne
plant of the Western Electric Company. Four
studies were carried out namely:
The illumination studies
The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies
The interviewing Program
The Bank Wiring Room studies
a)The illumination studies
These studies were expected to determine
the relationship between the level of
illumination and workers productivity.
It was expected that workers productivity
would increase with increasing levels of
illumination.
The studies failed to prove any relationship
between workers productivity and level of
illumination
b)The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies
These studies were carried out to determine
the relationship between workers productivity
and improved benefits and working conditions.
The studies found out that there was no
cause and effect relationship between
working conditions and output.
Rather, there were other factors that affected
workers output such as his/her attitudes
and supervisor behavior
c) The interviewing Program
A group of employees were interviewed to learn more
about their opinions with respect to their work, working
conditions and supervision. The workers suggested
that:
Psychological factors help determine whether a worker
is satisfied or dissatisfied in any particular work
situation
The persons need for self-actualization determines
his/her satisfaction in the work.
A persons work group and his relationship to it, also
determines his/her productivity.
d) The Bank Wiring Room studies
This study was expected to study the effect of
group influence on workers productivity.
The researchers found out that an informal
grouping and relationship was a critical factor
in the workers productivity.
The informal group determined the groups
productivity, and functioned as a protective
mechanism (served both for internal and
external purposes).
Conclusions on Hawthorne
experiments
An industrial organization is a socio technical
system. The socio part is the human aspects that
need to be taken care of in order to increase
workers productivity and the technical system is the
physical aspects that also need to be improved.
Employee attitudes and morale are also important
as determinants of productivity.
Other factors include workers personality and
supervisors behavior. These two also affect
workers altitude and morale.
A workers social group has a prevailing effect on his
or her altitude and productivity
Criticisms of the Hawthorne studies

The philosophical basis

By emphasizing the social needs of human being
rather than the economic needs and self-interest,
these studies conflict the philosophical basis of
economic theory.
Methodology
The study methodology lacks the basis for
generalizations.
Findings
The cause and effect relationship conclusions lack
general support and scientific verifiability.
Contribution

The Hawthorne Studies have however

made the following contribution OB.
Their finding on the importance of informal
groups is also a key to organization theory.
Their emphasis on employee altitude
towards work as an additional to other
factors was a breakthrough in OB.
CONTINGENCY APPROACH (1945
PRESENT
Following World War II, a new approach on
organizational behaviour began to develop
Called the contingency approach, it acknowledged the
difficulty of offering simple general principles to explain
or predict behaviour in organizational setting
The approach sought to specify the conditions under
which we can expect to find certain relationships.
As such it represented a search for the factors that
would aid in predicting and explaining behaviour
 Organizational behaviour researchers who subscribe t the
contingency approach believe that employee behaviour is too
complex to be explained by only a few simple and straight
forward principles. Instead, they seek to identify the factors that
are jointly necessary for a given principle to hold

Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of

personal and situational factors in determination of employee
behaviour

therefore if you ask what is the best way for a manager to

behaviour autocratically or democratically, the contingent
researcher will consider issues like subordinates expectations
and preferences and the situations at hand, cultural differences,
etc
CULTURE QUALITY MOVEMENT
(1980 PRESENT
TQM is a corporate culture characterized by increased customer
satisfaction through continuous improvements, in which all
employees actively participate

Two terms that gained quick interest among managers and

organizational researchers wee organizational culture and
quality improvement.

The authors of several books in the early 1980s Peter

Waterman ( In Search of Excellence), Deal and Kennedy
( Corporate Culture) and others focus on how to build a strong
set of shared positive values and norms within a corporation (that
is a strong corporate culture) while emphasizing quality service,
high performance and flexibility.
 Advocates of culture quality movement
claim that productivity and financial
return can be significantly enhanced by
developing culture that emphasize key
values
Presently, the evidence suggest that,
properly introduced, there are some
economic advantages to following
culture-quality movement
THEORITICAL
FRAMEWORKS OF OB
OB Theoretical Framework

Although OB is extremely complex and

includes many inputs and dimensions,
three frameworks:
The cognitive,
Behaviouristic,

social cognitive frameworks

Can be used to develop an overall

model for OB
The theories

The theories to be discussed will include:

Behaviouristic theories
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

Cognitive theory
Social learning
Social cognitive theory
Cognitive Framework
The cognitive approach to human behaviour
has many sources of inputs ( the five senses)
Cognition, which is the basic unit of the
cognitive framework, can be defined as the act
of knowing an item from information
Under this framework, cognition precedes
behaviour and constitutes input into the
persons thinking, perception, problem solving,
and information processing
Edward Tolman Cognitive
framework
Although Tolman believed behaviour to be
appropriate unit of analysis, he felt that
behaviour is purposeful, that it is directed
towards a goal
He felt that cognitive learning consists of a
relationship between cognitive environmental
cues and expectations
Through experimentation, he found out that a
rat could learn to run through an intricate
maze, with purpose and direction, towards
goal (food)
 Tolman observed that at each point in the
maze, expectations were established in other
words, the rat learned to expect a certain
cogitative cue associated with the choice point
might eventually lead to the food
If the rat actually received the food, the
association between the cue and the
expectancy was strengthen, and leaning
occurred
Tolmans approach could be depicted that
learning is an association between the cue and
the expectancy)
 In his laboratory experiment, he found that
animals learned to expect a certain event
would follow another for example, animal
learned to behaviour as if they expect food
when a certain cue appeared.
Thus, Tolman believed that learning consist of
expectancy that a particular event will lead to a
particular consequence
This cognitive concept of expectancy implies
that the organisms is thinking about or is
conscious or aware of, the goal.
 Thus Tolman and others espousing the
cognitive approach felt hat behaviour is
best explained by these cognitions
Applied to OB, cognitive approach has
dominated unit of analysis such as
perception, personality and attitudes,
motivation, decision making and goal
setting
BEHAVIOURISTIC FRAMEWORK

The roots of behavioristic theory of human

behaviour can be trace back to the work of
Ivan Pavlov and John Watson
These pioneering behaviorists stressed the
importance of dealing with observable
behaviour instead of the elusive mind that had
preoccupied earlier psychologist
They used the classical conditioning
experiment to formulate the stimulus-response
(S - R) explanation of human behaviour
 Both Pavlov and Watson felt that behaviour
could be best understood in terms of S-R
A stimulus elicit response
They concentrated mainly on the impact of the
stimulus and felt that learning occurred when
the S -R connection was made
Ivan Pavlov who attributed leaning to the
association or connection between stimulus
and response (S-R
 Based on Pavlov classical conditioning
experiment using dogs as subjects
When presented with meat powder
( unconditioned stimulus) - the dog secreted
saliva (unconditioned response)
When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
the dog did not salivate
When meat was accompanied with the ringing
of the bell several times, then Pavlov rang the
bell without presenting the meat, the dog
salivated to the bell alone
 Conclusion - that the dog has become
classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned
response) to the sound of the bell
( conditioned stimulus
Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a
process in which a formerly neutral stimulus,
when paired with an unconditioned stimulus,
becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a
conditioned response; in other words, the S-R
connection is learned
Example of Pavlov S - R
Stimulus (S) Response
Is stuck by a pin Flinches
Is shocked by an Jumps/screams
electric current Jumps/screams
Is surprised by a Flexes lower leg
loud sound
Is tapped below the
kneecap
B.F Skinner
Another psychologist whose work explains this
framework is B. F. Skinner.

He felt that the early behaviorists helped explain

respondents behaviours (those behaviours elicited by
stimulus) but not the more complex operant
behaviours

In other words, the S -R approach helped explain the

physical reflexes, for examples, when stuck by a pin
(S), the person will flinch ( R) or when tapped below
the kneecap (S) the Epson will extend the lower leg
( R)
 Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only
respondent (reflexive) behaviours. i.e. involuntary
responses that are elicited by a stimulus
He felt that more complex, but common human
behaviour cannot be explained by classical
conditioning alone.
He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an
organism was under control of stimuli which were
effective only because they were correlated with
reinforcing consequences
Through his research thus , skinner posited that
behaviour was a function of consequences, not the
classical conditioning eliciting stimuli
 He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates
on, the environment to receive a desirable
consequences.
This type of behaviour is learned through operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with
learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour,
or R-S.
It is not concerned with the eliciting causes of
behaviour, as classical , or respondent, conditioning is
The organism has to operate on an environment (thus
the term operant conditioning) in order to receive the
desirable consequences.
 The preceding stimulus does not cause the
behaviour in operant conditioning; it serves as
a cue to emit the behaviour. For skinner and
other behaviorists, behaviour is a function of
its contingent environmental consequences
So behavourisitic approach is environmentally
based. It posits that cognitive processes such
as thinking, expectancies, and perception may
exist but are not needed to predict and control
or manage behaviour
 On the other hand, Skinner found out
through his operant conditioning
experiment, that the consequences of a
response could better explain most
behaviour than elicit stimuli could
He emphasized the importance of the
response-stimulus (R -S) relationship
Example of Skinners operant
conditioning
Response Stimulus (S)
Works Paid
Talks to others Meets more people
Enters a restaurant Obtain food
Enters a library Finds a book
Increases
productivity
Receives merit pay
Completes a difficult Receives praise or a
assignment promotion
Behaviouristic theories
These came out of the behaviorist school of
thought in psychology and derived from the
work of:
Classical behaviorist like Ivan Pavlov who
attributed leaning to the association or
connection between stimulus and response
(S-R)
The operant behaviorist, in particular the well
known American psychologist B. F. Skinner
who give more attention to the role that
consequences play in learning or the response
stimulus (R-S) connection
Classical conditioning
Based on Pavlov classical conditioning
experiment using dogs as subjects
When presented with meat powder
( unconditioned stimulus) - the dog secreted
saliva (unconditioned response)
When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
the dog did not salivate
When meat was accompanied with the ringing
of the bell several times, then Pavlov rang the
bell without presenting the meat, the dog
salivated to the bell alone
Classical conditioning (cont..)
Conclusion - that the dog has become
classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned
response) to the sound of the bell ( conditioned
stimulus
Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a
process in which a formerly neutral stimulus,
when paired with an unconditioned stimulus,
becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a
conditioned response; in other words, the S-R
connection is learned
This theory is seen to be used in marketing
Operant conditioning
Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only respondent
(reflexive) behaviours. i.e. involuntary responses that are
elicited by a stimulus
He felt that more complex, but common human behaviour cannot
be explained by classical conditioning alone.
He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an organism
was under control of stimuli which were effective only because
they were correlated with reinforcing consequences
Through his research thus , skinner posited that behaviour was a
function of consequences, not the classical conditioning eliciting
stimuli
He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates on, the
environment to receive a desirable consequences.
This type of behaviour is learned through operant conditioning
Operant conditioning (cont..)

Operant conditioning is concerned

primarily with learning that occurs as a
consequence of behaviour, or R-S.
It is not concerned with the eliciting
causes of behaviour, as classical , or
respondent, conditioning is
Differences between operant and
classical
Classical Operant
A change in the stimulus One particular response
(US to CS ) will elicit a out of many possible
particular responses ones occur in a given
The strength and stimulus
frequency of classically The stimulus situation
conditioned behaviour serves as a cue for
are determined mainly by person to emit response
the frequency of the and does not elicit
eliciting stimuli ( the response
environmental events that
precedes the behaviour)
Differences between operant and
classical (cont..)
The strength and The strength and
frequency of frequency of
classically operantly
conditioned conditioned
behaviour are behaviours are
determined mainly determined mainly
by the frequency of by the
the eliciting stimuli consequences (the
( the environmental environmental event
events that precedes that follows
the behaviour) behaviour)
Differences between operant and
classical (cont..)
During the classical The reward s
conditioning process, presented only after
the unconditioned the organism gives
stimulus, serving as the correct response
a reward is The organism must
presented every time operate in the
environment (thus
the term operant
conditioning) in order
to receive a reward
Examples of classical conditioning

Stimulus (S) Response

Is stuck by a pin Flinches
Is shocked by an Jumps/screams
electric current
Is surprised by a Jumps/screams
loud sound
Is tapped below the
Flexes lower leg
kneecap
Examples of operant conditioning

Response Stimulus (S)

Works Paid
Talks to others Meets more people
Enters a restaurant Obtain food
Enters a library Finds a book
Increases Receives merit pay
productivity Receives praise or a
Completes a difficult promotion
assignment
Operant conditioning
Today operant conditioning has much greater
impact on human learning than classical
conditioning
It explain much of organizational behaviour
E.g. people go to work to feed, cloth and
house themselves and their families - working
(conditioned response) is instrumental in
obtaining food, shelter and clothing
Managers can analyse the consequences of
organizational behaviour, to change the
environment, and help accomplish goals
Cognitive theories

Edward Tolman is widely recognized as

pioneer of cognitive theorists
He felt that cognitive learning consists of
a relationship between cognitive
environmental cues and expectations
Through experimentation, he found out
that a rat could learn to run through an
intricate maze, with purpose and
direction, towards goal (food)
Edward Tolman Cognitive
theory
Tolman observed that at each point in the maze,
expectations were established in other words, the rat
learned to expect a certain cogitative cue associated
with the choice point might eventually lead to the food
If the rat actually received the food, the association
between the cue and the expectancy was strengthen,
and leaning occurred
In contrast to the S-R and R S learning in classical
and operant approaches, Tolmans approach could be
depicted as S-S ( stimulus-stimulus) or learning the
association between the cue and the expectancy)
Social learning and social cognitive
theory
This theory combines and integrates both
behaviorist and cognitive concepts and
emphasizes the interactive, reciprocal nature
of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
determinants
Social learning theory recognizes and draws
from the principles of classical and operant
conditioning but went beyond classical and
operant theory by recognizing that there is
more to leaning than direct learning via
antecedent stimuli and contingent
consequences
 Social learning takes position that
behaviour can best b explained in terms
of continuous interactions among
cognitive, behavioral and environmental
determinants
The person and the environmental
situation do not function as independent
unit but in conjunction with behaviour
itself
 It is largely through their actions that
people produce the environmental
condition that affect their behaviour in a
reciprocal fashion
The experience generated by behaviour
also partly determines what a person
becomes and can do which in tern
affects subsequent behaviour
Org. participant, environment and
behaviour - relationship
participant control their own behaviour to
the extent that they rely on cognitive
support and manage relevant
environmental cues and consequences
Cognitive representation of reality helps
guide organizational behaviour
Much of complex behaviour is acquired
by directly observing others in the
surrounding environment
Organizational participants

Organizational behaviour

Organizational environment
Social learning theory (cont..)
Social learning theory posits that learning can
also take place via
vicarious/explicit/shocking/juicy, or modeling,
and self control conditioning processes.
Thus social learning theory agrees with
classical and operant conditioning processes,
but says they too are limiting and adds
vicarious, modeling and self-control processes
Social cognition Albert Bandura

This theory goes beyond social learning

It extents learning and/or modifying by giving
more attention to self-regulatory mechanisms
Specifically, social cognitive theory identifies
five capabilities that people use to initiate,
regulate and sustain their behaviours.
Theses are (1) symbolizing, (2) forethoughts,
(3) vicarious/ modeling learning
(observational) , (4) self regulation, and (5)
self reflection
 Learning is one of the fundamental
behaviour processes, involves both the
development and the modification of
thoughts and behaviours
Other concepts and aspects of
organizational behaviour 9 for example
motivation that will be discussed in later
chapters can be fully explained with the
use of learning principles
 New employees will bring with them a set of
previously leaned ways of behaving. They are
then expected to learn additional information
than applies to their jobs.
Established employees continue to develop
their job related skills and abilities
Therefore, learning is a never ending process
for all employees.
 The process is also very complex. -an
employee who has already learned one way to
perform a job may have trouble learning a
second albeit better way
An employee motivation to perform is closely
linked to learning.
Therefore a manager who understands leaning
process can use the principles of learning to
guide employees behaviour and performance.
 Today operant conditioning has much greater
impact on human learning than classical
conditioning
It explain much of organizational behaviour
E.g. people go to work to feed, cloth and
house themselves and their families - working
(conditioned response) is instrumental in
obtaining food, shelter and clothing
Managers can analyse the consequences of
organizational behaviour, to change the
environment, and help accomplish goals
Social cognitive Framework
The cognitive approach has been accused of being
mentalistic, and the behavioristic approach has been
accused of being deterministic.
Social Cognitive theorists argue that the S-R model
and to a lesser degree the R S model, are too
mechanistic explanation of human
The social cognitive approach tires to integrate the
contribution so both of these approaches
Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of
behaviorisms contingent environmental
consequences, but also includes cognitive processes
of self regulation
 Based on the work of Albert Bandura social learning
theory and David and Luthans, this framework
proposes a social learning approach to organizational
behaviour
Social learning takes the position that behaviour can
best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal
interaction among cognitive, behavioral and
environmental determinants.
The persons and the environmental situations do not
function as independent units but, in conjunction with
the behaviour itself, reciprocally interact to determine
behaviour
 Bandura explains that it is largely through their
actions that people produce the environmental
conditions that affect their behavior in a reciprocal
fashion
The expediencies generated by behaviour also partly
determine what a person becomes and can do which
in turn, affects subsequent behaviour
A triangular model of Organizational participants,
organizational environment and organizational
behaviour takes this social learning work of Bandura
and translates it into relevant unit of analysis and
variables of organizational behaviour
 Org. participant, environment and behaviour - relationship
participant control their own behaviour to the extent that they rely
on cognitive support and manage relevant environmental cues
and consequences
Cognitive representation of reality helps guide organizational
behaviour
Much of complex behaviour is acquired by directly observing
others in the surrounding environment
Bandura has taken his social leaning and developed into the
more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Specifically
SCT recognises the importance of behaviorisms contingent
environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive
processes of self regulation