AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT PHASE 2

18 SEATER BUSINESS JET

TEAM
Mohamed Shoaib Khaleel
B.Prasanth
Hari Haran

B.S.Abdur Rahman University

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Contents
Drag Polar
Performance
Unaccelerated Flight
Steady Level Flight
Steady Climb
Descent and Glide
Range and Endurance\
Accelerated Flight
Takeoff Performance
Landing Performance
V-n Diagram
Stability
Structural Design
Drag Polar
The Drag Polar is the relationship between the lift on an aircraft and its drag It may be
described by an equation or displayed in a diagram called a polar plot.

The mathematical model of variation of CD vs. CL is given by

CD CDO KCL 2
Where,
CDO is the zero lift drag co efficient
2
CDi is the induced drag co efficient, KC L

The constant K is the induced drag correction factor which can be easily calculated
using the formula

K = 1/(*e*AR)
Where,
e = Oswald Efficiency
AR = Aspect Ratio
CALCULATION OF CDO

CDO is the summation of all contributing components and each and every component of
the aircraft have only positive contribution to CDO

CDO = CDOf +CDOw + CDOht + CDOvt + CDOn+ CDOhld + CDOlg

Where,
CDOf is the zero lift drag produced by fuselage.
CDow is the zero lift drag produced by wing.
CDOht is the zero lift drag produced by horizontal tail.
CDOvt is the zero lift drag produced by vertical tail.
CDon is the zero lift drag produced by nacelle.
CDOhld is the zero lift drag produced by high lift devices.
CDolg is the zero lift drag produced by landing gear.

For cruise flight we neglect the CDO of high lift devices and landing gear which we
consider for take off and landing.
FUSELAGE:
The zero lift drag for the fuselage is given by

CDO f C f * fld * f m * S wetf / S

Where ,
Cf is the friction coefficient, Cf = 0.455*( log Re ) -2.58 ( for turbulent flows)

Reynolds number, Re = *V*l /

Where ,
is the viscosity coefficient at that altitude
fld is the function of fuselage fineness ratio (Lf/Df)

fld = 1+ 60 /[ (Lf/Df)3]+ 0.0025(Lf/Df)

fm = 1- 0.08M1.45

Swetf = *Df*Lf*[1- 2/(Lf/Df)]0.67*[1+ 1/( 2)]

CDOf = 1.069x10-3
WING, HORIZONTAL TAIL, VERTICAL TAIL

The zero lift coefficients of wing is given by

CDOw C fw * ftc * f m * S wetw / S * Cd minw / 0.04 = 7.75x10-3

0.4

The zero lift coefficient of horizontal tail is given by

CDOht C fw * ftc * f m * S wetw / S * Cd min ht / 0.04

0.4
= 7.64x10-3

The zero lift coefficient of vertical tail is given by

CDOvt C fw * ftc * f m * S wetw / S * Cd min vt / 0.04

0.4
= 7.85x10-3

Where,
ftc = 1+ 2.7 ( t/c ) max + 100 (t/c)max

Swet = 2.0*[1+0.2(t/c)]*S
NACELLE
As it is similar to the shape of the fuselage, the same formula can be applied.
The diameter of the nacelle is about 10 % larger than diameter of the engine and
the fineness ratio is around 1.5 to 2.

CDOn = 1.069x10-4

LANDING GEAR
The zero lift drag coefficient due to landing gear comes into the picture only during take-off
and landing because during cruise they are retracted into their respective locations.

CDOlg = CDlg (Slg/S)

Where,

CDlg is the drag coefficient of each wheel = 0.15 ( for landing gear without fairing)
Slg is the frontal area of each wheel = diameter of tyre * radius of tyre (in meter)

CDOlg = 4.90x10-3
HIGH LIFT DEVICES

The zero lift contribution of high lift devices is also obtained during take off and landing.
It is given by
CDOthld = (Cf /C)* A*f B

Where,
Cf / C is the ratio of high lift device chord to the wing chord
f is the deflection angle corresponding to take off or landing, T/O = 20O
Landing = 40o

We have chosen double slotted flap to be extended for incremental lift

Flap type A B

Split flap 0.00014 1.5

Plain flap 0.00016 1.5

Single slotted flap 0.00018 2

Double slotted flap 0.00011 1

Fowler flap 0.00015 1.5

The drag polar equations are as follows

For cruise

CDOcruise = 0.0244 + (0.048(CL2))

For takeoff

CDOT/O = 0.0588 + (0.048(CL2))

For landing

CDOlanding = 0.06103 + (0.048(CL2))

 Cl vs Cd
0.18

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.14

0.13

0.12

0.11

0.1

0.09 Cl vs Cd (cruise)
Cd

Cl vs Cd (Takeoff)
0.08
Cl vs Cd (Landing)
0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Cl
Performance
The performance aspects of the aircraft to be studied are under unaccelerated
flight conditions and accelerated flight conditions.

Under unaccelerated flight the following are studied

Steady level flight

Steady Climb
Descent and Glide
Range and Endurance

Under accelerated flight the following are studied

Take off performance

Landing performance
UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

Under the steady level flight performance the maximum and the minimum level
of speed for each altitude is estimated.

The equations of motion for steady level flight are

TD=0;LW=0

1
W L ( ) V 2 S wCL
2
1
TR D ( ) V 2 S wCD
2

2W 2
V =( )
SCL

CD
TR W ( )
CL
 300000

250000

200000
Thrust (N)

150000
Tr vs velocity at SL
Ta vs velocity at SL

100000

50000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Velocity (m/s)
 350000

300000

250000

200000
Thrust (N)

Tr at 5000m
Ta at 5000m
150000

100000

50000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Velocity (m/s)
 700000

600000

500000

400000
Thrust (N)

Tr at 11000m
Ta at 11000m
300000

200000

100000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Velocity (m/s)
 800000

700000

600000

500000
Thrust (N)

400000
Tr at 12000m
Ta at 12000m

300000

200000

100000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Velocity (m/s)
 900000

800000

700000

600000

500000
Thrust (N)

Tr at 13000m
400000 Ta at 13000m

300000

200000

100000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Velocity (m/s)
 STEADY CLIMB
:
:
Under steady climb performance, the following are evaluated for the aircraft
Maximum rate of climb
maximum angle of climb
maximum attainable ceiling

Maximum angle to climb, max

Sin max T / W 4* CDO * K = 16.68O

0.5

Velocity Required to attain maximum angle to climb,

Vmax [ 2 / * ( K / CDO )0.5 * W / S * cosmax ]0.5 = 29.90 m/s

R / Cmax of the jet aircraft

R / Cmax [{W / S * Z / 3* * CDO }0.5 T / W * 1 Z / 6 3 / 2 T / W L / D
1.5 2 2
max
*Z ]

= 34.368 m/s
 R/C (m/s) vs Velocity
45

40

35

30

25
R/C (m/s)

R/C (m/s) vs Velocity

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Velocity (m/s)
 R/Cmax (ft/min) vs Altitude
7900

7400

6900

6400

5900

5400

4900
R/C max (ft/min)

4400

3900
R/Cmax (ft/min) vs Altitude
3400

2900

2400
Service Ceiling
1900

1400

Absolute Ceiling
900

400

-100
-500 500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 7500 8500 9500 10500 11500 12500 13500 14500
Altitude (m)
 GLIDING FLIGHT
: The following are determined for the gliding flight performance,
: Minimum descent angle
Maximum range
Equilibrium glide velocity
Rate of descent
Minimum descent angle, min

tanmin 1/ L / D max = 3.92O

Maximum range covered over the ground, Rmax

tanmin h / Rmax = 193.430 km

Equilibrium glide velocity, V L / D

max

[2 / * K / CDO * W / S ]0.5= 187.95 m/s

0.5
V L / D
max

Rate of descent, Vvmin

Vv [2 / * CL 3 / CD 2 * W / S ]0.5 = 11.334 m/s

RANGE
Range is the total distance traversed by the aircraft on a full tank of fuel.

R 2 / c * (2 / S ) * CL 0.5
/ CD * Wo 0.5
W 1
0.5

C L
0.5
/ CD
max
0.75* 1/ 3* K * CDO
3 0.25
= 19.72
R = 2232 km
ENDURANCE

Endurance is the total time the aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel.

E 1/ c * L / D * ln WTO / WLanding
L
( ) max = (1/4*K*CDO)0.5 = 14.61
D

E = 7.73 hrs
 LEVEL TURN
Under level turn the following are determined,
Minimum turn radius
Velocity for minimum turn radius
Load Factor corresponding to minimum turn radius

Minimum turn radius, Rmin

0.5
Rmin 4* K * W / S / g * * T / W * [ 1 4* K * CDO * T / W
2

= 707.59 m

Velocity corresponding to minimum turn radius, VRmin

VRmin [4* K * W / S / * T / W ]0.5 = 187.95 m/s

Load factor corresponding to minimum radius, nRmin

nRmin 2 4* K * CDO / T / W = 1.401

2

 The two categories in turn are
Maximum sustained turn rate( MSTR)
Sharpest sustained turn (STR)

Maximum Sustained Turn Rate

The maximum constant altitude turning rate that can be sustained by the aircraft is known
as Maximum Sustained Turn Rate. This will result in bleeding of speed and
eventually reduction in turn rate.

Sharpest Sustained Turn Rate

The aircraft to make sharpest turn or the turn with minimum radius of curvature while
holding the altitude constant is the Sharpest Sustained Turn Rate.

Z T / W * CL / CD max Vmindrag (2W / S )0.5 * K / CDO

0.25

For maximum sustained turn rate, For sharpest sustained turn,

n 2 Z 1 n 2Z 1
0.5 0.5
2
/Z
g * 2Z 2 / V g * Z 2 1 / Z 0.5 *V
0.5

R V 2 / g *1/ 2Z 2
0.5
R V 2 / [ g * Z 2 1]
 N R

For sea level MSTR 3.06 0.3006 1649.3

Vmindrag = 94.663 m/s
STR 1.401 1.185 34.999

N R
For 5000m
Vmindrag = 122.12 m/s MSTR 2.29 0.1657 3136.2

STR 1.3776 0.399 173.04

N R
For 12000m
Vmindrag = 187.93 m/s MSTR 1.28 0.042 2883.7

STR 1.1945 0.0338 4836.4

 ACCELERATED FLIGHT

TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

For ground roll,

Vstall [2 / *(W / S ) *(1/ CLmax )]0.5 = 63.255 m/s

VLO 1.1Vstall = 69.55 m/s

Sg 1.21 W / S / {g CLmax [T / W D / W r 1 L / W ]}0.7VLO 1.1N

= 695.11 m
For airborne,

R 6.96 Vstall / g
2
= 2836.076 m

cos 11 h / R = 5.06o

Sa Rsin = 250.40 m

STO S g S a = 945.51 m

Length of the runway required = 695.11 m

LANDING PERFORMANCE

For ground roll,

Vstall [2 / *(W / S ) *(1/ CLmax )]0.5 = 60.22 m/s

Vf = 1.23Vstall = 74.071 m/s

VTD 1.15 Vstall = 69.25 m/s

Sg 3 * VTD { W *VTD 2 / 2gCLmax * [1/ (Trev D r W L 0.7VLA )]}

= 505.56 m/s
For airborne,

R Vf / 0.2 g
2
= 2796.39 m

H f R(1 cos a ) = 2.796 m

Sa 50 hf / tan a = 907.77 m

S f Rsin a = 146.35 m

SLA Sg Sa Sf = 1559.68 m

Length of the runway required = 651.92 m

 V-n Diagram
The restrictions on the speed and the load factor (n) for the aircraft is given in form of
V-n diagram in which the load factor is plotted against the velocity. The operating limits represented by the
V-n diagram are the limits dictated by the airframe.

V 2 T V 2
n max = { [( )
W W max W
* CDO ]}
2K ( ) 2K ( )
S S

n= 1
2
C
* V 2 * L max
W
( )
S

The graph is plotted using the tabulated values with velocity along X-axis and along Y axis. The point of
intersection of the two curves gives the positive limit load factor.

To find the maximum velocity the aircraft can travel, the thrust required and the thrust available curves are
plotted with velocity and the maximum velocity is found.
 STABILITY
Stability in the aircraft design is divided into two major categories
Static stability
Dynamic Stability

Static stability means when the aircraft is disturbed from the original flight path, forces will
be activated in such a way the aircraft returns to its original position.
Positive static Stability
Neutral static Stability
Negative static stability
 Dynamic stability means the way in which the restorative forces act on the body with
respect to time. In other ways it is the property which dampens the oscillations set up by
the statically stable aircraft.
The assumptions in the Analysis of
Aircraft Stability and Control
The flow is incompressible
Airframe is rigid i.e the distortion or deformation of airframe due to
aerodynamic forces and loads not considered.
The relationships between various parameters are generally linear which
implies the disturbances are assumed to be very small
The longitudinal motion is independent of lateral and directional forces.
Under Static stability of the Aircraft we have three different categories
Longitudinal Static stability
Lateral Static stability
Directional Stability.
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

Longitudinal stability refers to the tendency of the aircraft to

return to trim condition after a nose up or nose down disturbance.
The criterion for longitudinal stability
Cmo must be positive
must be negative
C m

LATERAL STABILITY:

Lateral stability refers to the ability of the aircraft to generate

the rolling moment to stabilize the rolling effect.

C=
l l
0.5* *V 2 * S w * b
=1.685
 Steps involved in determining stick fixed
longitudinal stability of the aircraft
at and aw are the slope of the lift curve found from the
equation
a= at and aw are the slope of the lift curve found from the
equation

CL
a= CL
1
* AR
Types of Stability:
Lateral stability refers to the ability of the aircraft to generate the rolling moment to stabilize
the rolling effect.
The criteria for lateral stability is must be greater than zero.
Directional stability:
Stability about the aircrafts vertical axis i.e. the sideways moment is known as directional stability or
weather cock stability.
The criteria for directional stability is must be positive for directional stability.

Stick fixed stability:

Stick fixed stability is concerned with the calculation of the trim angle and the stability of the
aircraft held at a constant location. Here there is no freedom for the control surface to move and
there are fixed at a particular position.

Stick free stability:

In stick free stability the control surface is allowed to float. So when the aircraft encounters a
vertical gust its pitch angle is altered and the elevator which is free to move seeks some momentary
equilibrium position from its original position before disturbance. This will have an effect on the
stability characteristics of aircraft.
 Neutral point:
Neutral point is the location of C.G where the stability
becomes zero and it is usually the aerodynamic centre where
the lift vector acts. It gives the most aft position of C.G of the
aircraft beyond which the C.G moves the aircraft becomes
unstable.
Maneuver point:
The position of C.G where the stick force required to
accelerate the aircraft becomes zero is the stick free maneuver
point.
The position of C.G where the elevator angle required to
accelerate the aircraft vanishes is known as stick fixed
maneuver point.
It is always behind the neutral point of the aircraft.
 Steps involved in determining stick fixed
longitudinal stability of the aircraft
C m C m

C L
must be evaluated which is equivalent to since CL is
proportional to .
C m X cg X ac C m at *Vht *ht

C L
= + + (1- )
C C L aw

= 0.2136

Xcg can be found out from the balance diagram (from the
phase I) and Xac is assumed to be around 0.25.
 2
C m = K f *W f * L f
= 0.2136
C L CL
S w *( )W * C


Is evaluated from the formulae given below

CL = 0.046
= 2*( )w


* AR
For different values for e, C is
mo evaluated as follows

e (Deg) Cm

-25 0.060042

-20 0.0129

-15 0.0432

-10 0.1643

-5 0.05286

0 0.09063
 Static Margin for different cases
Full payload+ Full fuel 0.06042

Full payload+ Full fuel 0.0129

Zero payload+ Full fuel 0.0432

Zero payload+ Reserve fuel 0.1643

Half payload + Full fuel 0.05286

Half payload + Reserve fuel 0.09063

 C m
Estimation of elevator control power ( ) :
e

Elevator control power is the rate at which the pitching

moment changes with the deflection of the elevator.

C m = at *Vht *ht * o
e
=(0.0936)(1.1)(0.25)

= - 0.02574 rad-1
Stick force
Ch
C W C
Fs = *( A h * t ) K *( ) * e *( m ) stickfree
t S Cm CL
e

Where,
K = G * Se * Ce *;htG = 1.5, ht
= 0.90,
Ce
=0.20
C

K= - 50.929
 From the graph the trim velocity, = 270 m/s.
The slope of the curve at this point is the measure of stick force to
produce a change in speed.
Steps involved in determining the
Directional Stability of the aircraft: =-

Contribution of the wing to Directional Stability:

Cn
(

) wing = 0.00006*() 0.5
Where, is the sweep back angle in
degree
=0.0003
Contribution of fuselage and nacelle to Directional Stability
(all units in SI):

( Cn ) = 0.96* K Sf Lf h1 w

fuselage & nacelle ( )*( )*( )*[( )*( 2 )]0.5
57.3 Sw b h2 w1

= 0.003798 deg-1

Where, h1 and w1 is the height and width of fuselage at Lf/4

h2 and w1 is the height and weight of fuselage at
3Lf/4
K is found from vs.K(d/L
f) i.e fineness ratio of
fuselage ( Perkins and Hage)
Contribution of Vertical Tail to Directional Stability
(all in SI units)

Cn
( )verticaltail
= av *Vvt *vt *(1 )

Where,
Vvt
Sv * lv
=0.9 vt
Sw * b

= - 0.00195

Cn Cn Cn Cn
( ) = ( )verticaltail + ( ) fuselage&nacelle + (

) wing

= - 0.003464 + 0.003583 - 0.00465
= - 0.0015
 Steps involved for determining Lateral
Stability of Aircraft:
Contribution of the wing fuselage interface to lateral stability

Cl = - 0.0008 (low wing)

( ) wingfuselage
of vertical tail to lateral
Contribution stability (all units in
S.I)

=
Cl Sv Zv
av *( ) *( ) *vt
( )verticaltail
= - 0.00495
Sw b
Contribution of wing interference on vertical tail to lateral stability
Cl = 0.00016 ( Low wing)
( ) wingonverticaltail

Contribution of wing to lateral Stability
Cl = 0.002(^) + (
Cl
)tip shape+ (
Cl
) sweepback
( ) wing

Cl Cn Cl
( ) sweepback =0.5* ( ) wing+ ( )tip shape =0.0068392

Cl
)wingfuselage + ( Cl ) Cl
+ ( Cl )wing
Cl
( ) = ( +( ) wingonverticaltail

verticaltail

= 0.0024892 deg-1
Lateral Control:
The common way of determining the lateral control
effectiveness is by the use of the non dimensional parameter .
The lateral control deflection is the measure of lateral
control power available.
Aileron Rolling power relation is given by:

=
Pb 2*(1 )( K 23 K13 ) 3 ( K 2 2 K12 )
2* a *[ ]
2V 3
Pb
= 0.006306 deg-1
2V
Structural Design
WING DESIGN
The first step towards the Structural Design is to find the lift Distribution of the wing.
The lift distribution of the wing is best approximated using Schrenks Curve which is
the average of the Elliptical Distribution of the lift over the wing and the Trapezoidal
Distribution of the lift over the wing. So the elliptical and the trapezoidal distribution
of the lift over the wing should be approximated.

Steps involved in plotting the elliptic lift distribution

1.The area under the elliptic curve is given by
A = *b* w o / 8
This gives the lift produced by a single wing.

2. In steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight

*b* Lo / 8 =W TO / 2, Lo = 26489.05 N

3. Using the equation of ellipse the curve is plotted for different values of y
Ly =(4 W TO/ *b)/ [ 1- (2y/b)2]0.5
 Lift Distribution vs half span (elliptical)
w y = [13298.49 ( 1 8.19x10-3y2) 0.5]
14000

12000

10000

8000
Lift (N)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
TRAPEZOIDAL DISTRIBUTION

Steps involved in plotting trapezoidal lift distribution:

1.The area under the trapezoid is given by
A = b ( w 1 + w 2)/4
This gives the lift Distribution

2.In the steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight

b ( w 1 + w 2)/4 =W TO / 2

3.The lift produced by any section of wing is directly proportional to the chord of the
wing.
w 2 / w 1 = c t / c r = ( taper ratio)
w 1 = 2W TO / b (1+w 2 = 2W TO / b (1+ )

4.Using the equation of trapezoid, the lift distribution is given by

w y = 2 W TO / b (1+ )*[ 1 + 2y/b*( 1)]

w y = 17470.68 [ 1- 0.072y]
 Lift Distribution vs half span (tapezoidal)

20000

18000

16000

14000

12000
Lift (N)

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
 Schrenk's lift cuve
w y = {[13298.49 ( 1 8.19x10-3y2) 0.5]+ [17470.68 (1- 0.072y)]}
18000

16000

14000

12000

10000
Lift (N)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
 20000

18000

16000

14000

12000
Lift (N)

10000 Ly elliptical
Ly trapezoidal
Schrenk's curve
8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

Steps involved in plotting the Shear force diagram:

The different loads acting on the wing are identified and their distribution is evaluated
1.The loads whose distribution is to be known are the lift load, the wing structural weight and the fuel
weight. The point loads acting on the wing are engine weight and the landing gear and their locations are
identified.

2.The lift load distribution is obtained from the Schrenks curve, the fuel and the wing structural weight
is assumed to have trapezoidal distribution and the load acting depends upon the thickness and the chord
of the section of the wing.

3.The shear force diagram is obtained integrating the loads acting on the wing along its half span taking
into account the point loads at their positions with the tip of the wing as origin.
Fuel weight Distribution:

The weight of the fuel is proportional to the chord of that section.

The chord at any section can be computed using

( 1)
C Croot [1 y]
b/2

W1 C1t1 1
=
* lengthoffuel tan k *(W1 W2 ) Wwing
W2 C2t2 2
The fuel weight distribution is given by
w F = 12827.03 1225.69X
Structural weight Distribution:

Structural weight varies linearly from the root to tip of the wing and the
intensity of the load is proportional to the chord of the section.

W1 C1t1 = 1
* semispan *(W1 W2 ) Wwing
W2 C2t2 2
where point 1 and 2 represents the Root and the tip of the wing

w w = 785.93 31.44x
 Weight Distribution
16000

15000

14000

13000

12000

11000

10000

9000
Load (N)

8000
Schrenk's

7000 Fuel
Strutural
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
 Shear Force Distibution

3000000

2000000
Shear force (N)

SFD

1000000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)