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Philosophy (philosopha)
love of wisdom (Pythagoras)
the study of general problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge,
truth, beauty, justice, validity, mind,
language Philosophy is distinguished
from other ways of addressing these
questions (such as mysticism or mythology)
by its critical and systematic approach.
1
Branches of philosophy
Metaphysics - the nature of being and reality (ontology, cosmology,
but also mysticism, theology ).
Epistemology - nature and scope of knowledge and believe (truth,
justification ..., methodology)
Ethics, or 'moral philosophy', concerned with questions of how
persons ought to act (morality, virtue)
Political philosophy - study of government and the relationship of
individuals and communities to the society and state (justice, the
good, law, property, rights obligations of the citizen).
Aesthetic deals with beauty (art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional
values).
Logic deals with patterns of thinking that lead from true premises to
true conclusions.
Philosophy of mind deals with the nature of the mind and its
relationship to the body (dualism x monism, cognitive science)
Philosophy of language - inquiry into the nature, origins, and
usage of language.
Etc.
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Western philosophy historical division
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Eastern philosophy
4
Ancient western philosophy
temporal division
Pre-Socratic period
Classical periods (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
Hellenistic (post-Aristotelian) period
Christian (and Neo-Platonist) philosophy
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Mythological background of
philosophy
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Mythological background of
philosophy
Role of myths
Entertainment dramatic stories
Formation and encourage group self consciousness,
formation of tribe, ethnics, nation (justification why our tribe
is super ordinate)
Formation and consolidation of moral and social system
(model phenomena - archetypes: gods, heroes, solutions of
situations) (C. G. Jung)
Base of religion
From epistemological view:
There is a (non visible, metaphysical) world that controls
our visible (physical) world.
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Mythological background of philosophy
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Mythological background of
philosophy
Truth of myth implicit
expressions, metaphors, model
situations
Judgement of Paris - bone of
contention in Czech apple of
contention
Mythological truth and literal truth (art,
literature, theatre, film,
photography)
Truth of religion ?
Truth of science
Truth in philosophy
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Conditions for formation of
philosophy
SCHOLE (free time, leisure)
Developed language (abstract concepts)
Naivety of Homeric mythology religion
(anthropomorphism)
Exchange of ideas and cultural influences
(connection with other civilisations)
-----------------------
Material conditions (but cynics, Eastern sages)
Fine climate
Freedom (but among philosophers there were also
slaves)
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Presocratic philosophy
Milesians (Milesian school)
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Presocratic philosophy
Milesian School
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Presocratic philosophy
Milesian School
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Presocratic philosophy
Milesian School
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Heritage of Milesians
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Presocratic philosophy
Pythagoras and Pythagoreans
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Pythagoras of Samos
School of Pythagoras -
Number or limit is the basic principle
mathematics and numerology
THEORIA (theory) originally (watching) religious
festival, narrating about r.f. looking by inner sight
MATHEMATICA (mathematics), MATHEMA
theorem, doctrine teaching: esoteric and exoteric
COSMOS (order, jewel) HARMONY UNIVERSE
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HARMONIA (harmony) joint, fastening principle
of unification
MUSICA (music), laws of acoustic, (P. tuning)
monochorde sound of string, musical intervals,
music of spheres (we are accustomed with it),
MUSIC THERAPY
ARITHMOS and LOGOS (ratio)
Pythagoras theorem and crisis of mathematics
Irrational numbers
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Pythagoras
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Pythagoras
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Same of later Pythagoreans
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Same of later Pythagoreans
Archytas from Tarentum (cca 400 365 BC)
Ruler of Tarentum (Tarano, Italy) friend of Plato
Study of mathematics, acoustics (sound of moving bodies, pipes)
Mechanical dove
Finite universe:
IF I AM AT THE EXTREMITY OF THE HEAVEN OF THE FIXED
STARS, CAN I STRETCH OUTWARD MY HAND OR STAFF? IT
IS ABSURD TO SUPPOSE THAT I COULD NOT. IF I CAN, WHAT
IS OUTSIDE MUST BE EITHER BODY OR SPACE. WE MAY
THEN IN THE SAME WAY GET TO THE OUTSIDE OF THAT
AGAIN, AND SO ON. IF THERE IS ALWAYS A NEW PLACE TO
WHICH THE STAFF MAY BE HELD OUT, THIS CLEARLY
INVOLVES EXTENSION WITHOUT LIMIT.
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Neopythagoreism
Numerology
Kepler Cosmographic mystery
Physics and numerological from 1-
st century BC to 5-th AC) new
ideas packed in the form of old
time-honoured teaching
Heritage of Pythagoreism:
Mathematics ARITHMOLOGY
speculative approaches
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Heraclitus of Ephesus
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Dynamical approach
YOU CANNOT STEP TWICE INTO THE
SAME RIVER.
The learning of many things teaches not
understanding.
IF YOU DO NOT EXPECT THE
UNEXPECTED, YOU WILL NOT FIND IT
NATURE LOVES TO HIDE.
THE EYES ARE MORE EXACT WITNESSES
THAN THE EARS.
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TO GOD ALL THINGS ARE FAIR AND GOOD
AND RIGHT, BUT PEOPLE HOLD SOME
THINGS WRONG AND SOME RIGHT.
IT IS NOT GOOD FOR PEOPLE TO GET ALL
THEY WISH TO GET.
IT IS SICKNESS THAT MAKES HEALTH
PLEASANT; EVIL, GOOD; HUNGER,
PLENTY; WEARINESS, REST.
A PERSON'S CHARACTER IS HIS FATE.
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THIS WORLD, WHICH IS THE
SAME FOR ALL, NO ONE OF
THE GODS OR HUMANS HAS
MADE; BUT IT WAS EVER, IS
NOW, AND EVER WILL BE AN
EVER-LIVING FIRE, WITH
MEASURES OF IT KINDLING,
AND MEASURES GOING OUT.
EPYROSIS ? Conflagration
THE WAKING HAVE ONE
COMMON WORLD, BUT THE
SLEEPING TURN ASIDE EACH
INTO A WORLD OF HIS OWN.
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Some later reflection and similarities of Heraclitus
Cratylus:
YOU CANNOT STEP EVEN ONCE INTO THE
SAME RIVER.
Heraclitus and Taoism
Laoze (Lao Tzu)
Dynamic approach
Stoic philosophy
EKPYROSIS, LOGOS, PANTA REI, Everything
flows
Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger
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The Eleatic school
Xenophanes of Colophone (570 - 475 BC)
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The Eleatic school
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The Eleatic school
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The Eleatic school
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The Eleatic school
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The way to materialism
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The way to materialism
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The way to materialism
Anaxagoras criticism:
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The way to materialism atomism
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The way to materialism atomism
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Presocratic philosophy
Atomism
Free space
Atoms
Differences between ancient and modern atoms
Crisis of atomism
Order of necessity ANANKE
(The atomists say that the universe is)
NEITHER ANIMATE NOR GOVERNED BY
PURPOSE, BUT BY A SORT OF
IRRATIONAL NATURE (PHYSIS
ALOGOS).
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Presocratic philosophy
Atomism
ANANKE
Inferences of ANANKE
No chance
No freedom (free will)
No responsibility
Fatalism
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Presocratic philosophy
Atomism
(Absolute) determinism (Stoics, P. S. Laplace)
AN INTELLECT WHICH AT A GIVEN INSTANT KNEW
ALL THE FORCES ACTING IN NATURE, AND THE
POSITION OF ALL THINGS OF WHICH THE WORLD
CONSISTS - SUPPOSING THE SAID INTELLECT WERE
VAST ENOUGH TO SUBJECT THESE DATA TO ANALYSIS -
WOULD EMBRACE IN THE SAME FORMULA THE
MOTIONS OF THE GREATEST BODIES IN THE UNIVERSE
AND THOSE OF THE SLIGHTEST ATOMS; NOTHING
WOULD BE UNCERTAIN FOR IT, AND THE FUTURE, LIKE
THE PAST, WOULD BE PRESENT TO ITS EYES.
Laplace demon
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Presocratic philosophy
Atomism
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Presocratic philosophy
The Sophists
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Presocratic philosophy
The Sophists
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Presocratic philosophy
The Sophists
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Presocratic philosophy
The Sophists
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Socrates and Socratic schools
Socratic method dialectic method, based on dialogues
Self-knowledge the starting point
Socrates did not write (Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon)
Negative stage (assumed ignorance, Socratic irony)
Positive stage (intellectual midwifery), series of
questions - the opponent acknowledges his ignorance
knowledge through concepts
WHATEVER EXISTS FOR A USEFUL PURPOSE
MUST BE THE WORK OF SOME INTELLIGENCE (GOD?).
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Socrates and Socratic schools
Socratic moral paradox
Knowledge virtue
Ignorance evil
Sin the lack of knowledge
If anybody does evil, he should not be punished, but
instructed what not to do.
Ethics epistemology
NO ONE FREELY GOES FOR BAD THING OR THING HE
BELIEVES TO BE BAD
Aristotle ACRASIA weakness of will, passions and instinct
prevail. Humans are not rational creatures.
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Socratic schools - Megarian school
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Socrates and Socratic schools
Cynic school
Diogenes of Sinope
(about 403 - 323 BC), lived in large barrel
NOT TO HAVE ANY NEEDS IS GODLIKE
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Plato and Platonism
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Plato
and Platonism
Travels in Egypt, Sicily (intended
to influence Dionysios of his
ideal system of government),
cast into prison, sold as a slave,
ransomed by friends
Academy (387 BC - 529 AD)
LET NO ONE IGNORANT OF
MATHEMATICS ENTER
HERE.
Scientific orientation attracted the
ablest thinkers
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Plato
Platos works
Not written teaching?
Series of 36 dialogues, Letters
Socratic method of question and answer
Plato own philosophical myths - Atlantis
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Plato
Plato own myths - Atlantis
200-year-old annals of Solon, who heard it from an
Egyptian priests. Island located in the Ocean.
Great and wonderful empire. The inhabitants
possessed great wealth thanks to the natural
resources, centre for trade and commerce. The
island provided all kinds of herbs, fruits, and nuts.
An abundance of animals, including elephants,
roamed the island.
Generations the Atlanteans lived simple, virtuous
lives. But slowly they began to change. Greed and
power began to corrupt them. When the chief god
Zeus saw the immorality of the Atlanteans he
gathered the other gods to determine a suitable
punishment. Soon, in one violent tsunami surge,
Atlantis was gone.
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Plato and Platonism
The allegory of the cave
Philosophical fiction
prisoners living in a large cave
chained by their necks in a fixed
position, so that they can look
only at the wall in front of them
Behind them a fire, farther back
the entrance to the cave.
Path, where there are persons
carrying various figures
The prisoners can observe
shadows on the wall, they are
not aware that the shadows are
only shadows.
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Plato and Platonism
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Plato and Platonism
System of philosophy
Forms Ideas
various degrees of reality
Platos physics
Timaeus view on Cosmos teleology
Platonic bodies
Five regular solids, Platonic bodies have all their
sides the same and all their vertexes are
equivalent: tetrahedron cube, octahedron,
dodecahedron, icosahedron. Five basic elements:
fire, ground, water, air, and ether.
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Plato and Platonism
precession of the
Earths axis
Platonic year
30 000 years.
Concepts of
closed or cyclic time
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Plato and Platonism
Plato's ideal state
UNLESS PHILOSOPHERS BECOME RULERS OR RULERS
BECOME TRUE AND THOROUGH STUDENTS OF
PHILOSOPHY, THERE SHALL BE NO END TO THE
TROUBLES OF STATES AND OF HUMANITY.
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Aristotle and Aristotelism
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Stagira, Academy, Assos, Pella
Alexander:
THANKS TO MY FATHER I AM LIVING,
THANKS TO ARISTOTLE I KNOW HOW
TO LIVE.
Athens, Lykeion (PERIPATETIC school)
Death of Alexander
THE ATHENIANS MIGHT NOT HAVE
ANOTHER OPPORTUNITY OF
SINNING AGAINST PHILOSOPHY AS
THEY HAD ALREADY DONE IN THE
PERSON OF SOCRATES.
62
Aristotle and Aristotelism
General characterisation of Aristotles
philosophy
Logic
Theoretical philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics,
Mathematics
Practical philosophy
Philosophy of art
Logic (analytics)
Founder of logic, reduction of logic to an exact
science
SYLLOGISMs - schemes of logical judgments
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Aristotle and Aristotelism
Metaphysics
first philosophy, ontology
Theory of causes:
1. Material Cause
2. Formal Cause
3. Efficient Cause
4. Final Cause
Potentiality and Actuality (DYNAMIS, ENTELECHEIA)
Matter and Form
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Aristotle and Aristotelism
Physics
Four elements, ether, natural motions (up down, circular)
Elements, natural motions, prime matter
First Mover, concept of infinite, mechanics
Aristotle concept of God
It has seemed to me unfortunate that the word God (which
is, after all, a religious word) should have been retained
by philosophers as the name for a factor in their system
that no one could possibly regard as an object of worship,
far less of love. (Cornford)
65
Aristotle and Aristotelism
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Aristotle and Aristotelism
Politics
ZOON POLITIKON - social animal
The best form of government is that, which
best suits the character of the people.
IT IS CLEAR THAT SOME MEN ARE BY
NATURE FREE, AND OTHERS
SLAVES, AND THAT FOR THESE
SLAVERY IS BOTH EXPEDIENT AND
RIGHT.
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Aristotle and Aristotelism
Aristotelean school and Aristotelism
Andronicus of Rhodes - edited Aristotle's works
Alexander from Aphrodisias (2nd century AD)
John Philoponus (6th century)
Avicenna and Averroes (Commentator)
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274 AD) Christian adaptation of
Aristotle`s philosophy
Aristotles philosophy, and especially his logic, has been
considered as a basis for modern science.
In the middle ages, Aristotle philosophy gradually degenerated.
Also Aristotles logic was subjected to some contempt. It was
satirised by Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626), who argued that in
other civilisations, namely in China, the development of
science had been quite possible without Aristotle.
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Epicureanism
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Epicureanism
GODS IN METACOSMIA
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Later Epicureanism
Titus Lucretius Carus (about 91 51 BC)
DE RERUM NATURA
The universe of matter and space, no centre, space is
without limit, matter is composed of atoms
mind and soul of a material nature, of the finest and
roundest atoms
sense-perception: from the surface of objects thin films of
matter are continually flying off
origin of life by spontaneous generation, preservation of
animal life in accordance with the law of the survival of
the fittest
description of free fall (friction, resistance of enviroment)
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Stoicism
STOA (colonnade or porch), STOA POIKILE
(Painted Colonnade)
Zeno of Citium (circa 336 264 BC)
300 BC Stoic school
Chrysippus (280 205 BC)
Logic (propositional calculus)
AII knowledge enters the mind through the
senses. Criterion of truth lie in sensation
itself. Intense feeling of reality
(KATALEPSIS)
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Stoicism
Stoic ethics
ascetic system, perfect indifference to everything
external, APATHEA passions as essentially
irrational
LIVE ACCORDING TO NATURE.
Morality is simply rational action. From the root-
virtue, wisdom, spring: insight, bravery, self-
control, and justice.
Suicide
73
Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Stoicism
Stoic physics
NOTHING INCORPOREAL EXISTS.
Existence subsistence (time, logical rules, space )
world issue from one principle LOGOS (monism). The
corporeal cannot act on the incorporeal, nor the
incorporeal on the corporeal. There is no point of contact.
Hence all must be equally corporeal.
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Stoicism
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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period
Stoicism
Seneca (about 3 BC 65 AD)
Roman politician, orator and the most famous
Roman Stoic.
YOUR HAPPINESS LIES IN NO ASPIRATION FOR
HAPPINESS.
The main sources of evil are human passions.
Epictetus (50 130 AD)
God had arranged all for the happiness of man, so
evil is no more than an illusion.
Marcus Aurelius Antonius (121 - 180 AD)
seeker after righteousness, Meditations
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Scepticism
SKEPTIKOI - seekers or inquirers, basic mood is of doubt
We only know how things appear to us, but the same thing
appears differently to different people
Complete suspense of judgement (EPOCHE) all systems of
philosophy are equally false
Pyrrho of Elis (about 360 - 270 BC)
Pyrrhonism
Timon of Athens - Academic scepticism
Arcesilaus (ca. 315 - 241 BC) paradox of scepticism
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
Alexandria (323 BC),
Ptolemy 308 BC founder
of Ptolemy dynasty
(commander of Alexander
army)
Demetris Phaleron urged
for Museum (after 285 BC)
- temple of the Muses,
scientific institution
Library with 700 000 books
Septuaginta
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
Archimedes
Counting sand
1051 1063 grains of sand in the Universe
To the sphere with diameter of Pluto orbit
aprox. 1051 grains of sand
82
Science in Alexandria and
the Museum
Hipparchos from Nicae (2-nd cent. BC)
geocentrism, catalogue of 850 stars
Epicyclic theory
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(about 275 - 195 BC)
System of meridians and parallels
star map containing 675 stars
A new calendar system, accepted
later in Rome by Caesar (Julian
calendar in 46 BC,)
one year 9 minutes longer
1582 Gregorian calendar
1752 England, rebelions (?)
In orthodox countries till the
begining of 20-th century.
84
Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
85
Alexandria and the Museum
Aristarchos of Samos
(3rd century BC)
HELIOCENTRIC SYSTEM
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
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Science in Alexandria and the
Museum
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Philosophy of the Patristics
100 800 AD
Early Christian writers Church Fathers (Greek, Latin writeings)
Theology and philosophy
Tertullianus (Carthage cca 160 230)
Roman theologian, advocate
Christian, Montanist, his own sect
Aggressive sarcastic style
89
Tertullianus
Persecution of the Christians was ever present
danger and Chtistians were perplexed by it.
Was it persecution by Devil? No even such
persecution comes from God: It never happens
without God willing it and it is fitting for Him to
do so, to the approval or condemnation of his
servants.
What has Athens to do with Jerusalem, what has
the Academy to do with the Church?
90
Tertullianus
Christian truth is in opposition to secular
wisdom and to education as a whole.
Here lies its power and victory.
I believe it because it is impossible.
Nave materialism: all existing thing (incl.
God and soul) of material nature.
The term trinity
91
Augustin of Hippo (Tageste 354 430 AD)
92
Works of Augustine
93
The City of God (De civita dei)
94
Boethius (cca 480 525)
Intermediary between ancient philosophy
and Latin Middle Ages.
Last Romans and the first scholastic
philosopher.
395 Roman empire divided (E and W part)
476 Western part conquered by
Ostrogoths (Germans). Capital Ravena,
ruler Theodoric the Great
95
Boethius - works
Service of emperor Theodoric, many high posts
523 arrested (charged of treason plot with
Byzantine Emperor) prison in Pavia, executed
in 524
Intended to translate into Latin works of Aristotle
and Plato, Euclid, Ptolemy
On Music - Musica mundana, humana,
instrumentalis (incl. voice)
96
Boethius
Consolidation of Philosophy
Written in prison waiting for execution
Prose and verse - dialogue between
Author and Lady Philosophy
Discussion of many old philosophical
questions
Translated to practically to all languages
Pope Leo XIII: Boethius st. Severinus
97