Structural Geology

Structural Geology
 Tectonic collision deforms crustal rocks
producing geologic structures.
 Folds
 Faults
 Joints and Fractures
 Deformation
 All changes in the original location,
orientation or form of a crustal rock body.
 Deformation common
at plate margins.
 Deformation concepts…
 Force
 Stress
 Strain
 Force
 Force – Mass x acceleration (F = ma)
 The action that puts stationary objects in
motion or
 Changes the motion of moving objects.
 Stress
 Stress - Force applied to a given area.
Determines the concentration of force.
 Differential Stress – Unequal in different
directions.
 3 major types of differential stress
 Compressional stress
 Tensional stress
 Shear stress
 Compressional Stress
 “Push-together” stress.
 Shortens and thickens crust.
 Associated with orogenesis (mtn. building).
 Tensional Stress
 “Pull-apart” stress.
 Thins and stretches crust.
 Associated with rifting.

Stephen Marshak
 Shear Stress
 Slippage of one rock mass past another.
 In shallow crust, shear is often
accommodated by bedding planes.
 Strain
 Changes in the shape or size of a rock body
caused by stress.
 Strain occurs when stresses exceed rock
strength.
 Strained rocks deform by folding, flowing, or
fracturing.
 How Rocks Deform
 Elastic deformation – The rock returns to
original size and shape when stress removed.
 When the (strength) of a rock is surpassed, it
either flows (ductile deformation) or fractures
(brittle deformation).
 Brittle behavior occurs in
the shallow crust; ductile in
the deeper crust.

Stephen Marshak
 How Rocks Deform
 Factors controlling rock strength and
deformation style.
 Temperature and confining pressure
 Low T and P = brittle deformation
 High T and P = ductile deformation
 Rock type – Mineral composition controls
strength.
 Time – Stress applied for a long time generates
change.
 Mapping Geologic Structures
 Geologists describe and interpret rock structures.
 Structure usually determined from a limited number of
outcrops.
 Mapping is aided by advances in aerial photography,
satellite imagery and Global Positioning Systems (GPS).
 The most common and useful technique for geological
mapping remains….

FIELD WORK !!
The Formation
A mappable rock unit.
 Mapping Geologic Structures
 Describing and mapping the orientation of a
geologic structure or fault surface involves
determining …
 Strike (trend)
 Dip (inclination)
 Mapping Geologic Structures
 Strike (trend)
 The compass direction of the line produced by the
intersection of an inclined rock layer or fault with
a horizontal plane.
 Generally expressed an an angle relative to north.
 N37°E
 N12°W
 Mapping Geologic Structures
 Dip (inclination)
 The angle of inclination of the surface of a rock
unit or fault measured from a horizontal plane.
 Includes both an angle of inclination and a
direction toward which the rock is inclined.
 82°SE
 17°SW
 Folds
 Rocks are bent by crustal deformation into a
series of wave-like undulations called folds.
 Most folds result from compressional stresses
which shorten and thicken the crust.

Stephen Marshak
 Characteristics of Folds
 Parts of a fold
 Limbs – The two “sides” of a fold.
 Fold axis or hinge line – A line connecting points
of maximum curvature along a fold.
 Axial plane – An imaginary surface that divides a
fold symmetrically.
 Common Types of Folds
 Anticline – Upfolded or arched rock layers.
 Syncline – Downfolds or rock troughs. (Think “sink”)
 Depending on their orientation, anticlines and
synclines can be described as
 Symmetrical
 Asymmetrical
 Recumbent (an overturned fold)
 Plunging
Anticline
Syncline
Anticlines and Synclines are common in fold
and thrust belts related to mountain belts.
 Common Types of Folds
 Monoclines – Large, step-like folds in otherwise
horizontal sedimentary strata.
 Domes -Upwarped circular or slightly elongated
structure. Oldest rocks in center, younger rocks
outside.
 Basins – Downwarped circular or slightly elongated
structure. Youngest rocks are found near the
center, oldest rocks on the flanks.
Faults
 Faults
 Breaks in rock that exhibit offset.
 Exist at a variety of scales.
 Sudden movements along faults are the cause
of most earthquakes.
 Classified by movement…
 Horizontal
 Vertical
 Oblique
 Faults
 Faults grind rocks to create fault gouge.
 Walls of a fault bear evidence of this grinding
as slickensides.
 “Slicks” reveal
fault direction.
 Fault Types
 Dip-slip faults – Motion is parallel to fault
dip.
 Strike-slip faults – Motion is parallel to fault
strike.
 Dip Slip Faults
 May produce long, low cliffs called fault
scarps.
 Dip Slip Faults
 Fault blocks classified as

 Footwall (rock mass  Hanging wall

below the fault) (rock mass
above the fault)
 Types of Dip-Slip Faults
 Two dominant types
 Normal fault
 Reverse Fault
 Thrust (a low angle reverse fault)
 Types of Dip-Slip Faults
 Normal fault
 Hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall.
 Accommodate lengthening or extension of the
crust.
 Exhibit a variety of scales.
 Normal Faults
 Larger scale normal faults are associated
with fault-block mountains (Basin and Range
of Nevada).
 Normal fault bounded valleys are called
grabens (Rhine graben).
 Normal fault bounded ridges are called
horsts.
 Fig. 11.17b

W. W. Norton
 Types of Dip-Slip Faults
 Reverse faults
 Hanging wall block moves up relative to the
footwall block
 Reverse faults have dips greater than 45o and
thrust faults have dips less then 45o
 Accommodate shortening of the crust
 Strong compressional forces
 Types of Dip-Slip Faults
 Thrust faults - A special case of reverse fault.
 Hanging wall block moves up relative to the
footwall block
 Thrust faults are characterized by a low dip angle
(less then 45o).
 Accommodate shortening of the crust
 Strong compressional forces
 Fig. 11.17a

W. W. Norton
U.S. Geological Survey
 Strike-Slip Faults
 Dominant displacement is horizontal and
parallel to the strike of the fault
 Types of strike-slip faults
 Right-lateral – as you face the fault, the block on
the opposite side of the fault moves to the right
 Left-lateral – as you face the fault, the block on
the opposite side of the fault moves to the left
 Strike-Slip Faults
 Strike-slip fault
 Transform fault
– Large strike-slip fault that cuts through the
lithosphere
– Accommodates motion between two large
crustal plates
 Joints
 Joints are a very common
rock structure.
 They are fractures with no
offset.
 Result from tectonic
stresses on rock mass.
 Occur in parallel groups.
 Significance of Joints
 Chemical weathering tends to be
concentrated along joints
 Many important mineral deposits are
emplaced along joint systems
 Highly jointed rocks often represent a risk to
construction projects
QUESTIONS