Chapter 4

FLUID DYNAMIC
 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
No-Slip Condition -A Fluid in direct contact with a solid
sticks to the surface, and there is no slip.

A fluid flowing over a stationary

The development of a velocity
profile due to the no-slip condition
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose.
surface comes to a complete stop at
the surface because of the no-slip
condition.
2
 Boundary layer: The flow
region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects
(and thus the velocity
gradients) are significant.
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface.

In heat transfer, when two bodies at difference temperature

are brought into contact, heat transfer occurs such that both
bodies assume the same temperature at the points of
contact. Therefore, a fluid and solid surface have the same
temperature at the points of contact. This is phenomenon is
called no-temperature-jump condition.

3
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOW
1. Viscous vs Inviscid Regions of flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are
significant.
Inviscid/nonviscous/frictionless
flow regions: In many flows of
practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid
surfaces or no shearing stress)
where viscous forces are negligibly
small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.

The flow of an originally uniform fluid

stream over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous flow (next to
the plate on both sides) and inviscid
4
flow (away from the plate).
2. Compressible vs Incompressible flow

A flow is classified as
incompressible if the
density remains nearly
constant.
Liquid flows are typically
incompressible.
Gas flows are often
compressible, especially for
high speeds.

5
3. Natural (or Unforced) vs Forced Flow
Natural : fluid flow due to natural mean such as
buoyancy effect.
Forced : fluid motion due to external mean such as
pump or fan.
Water flow in a pipe is
internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
with the liquid and
turbulent wake region behind.
there is a free surface.
6
4. Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
Laminar: highly ordered
fluid motion with smooth
streamlines. Re<2100
Turbulent: highly
disordered fluid motion
characterized by velocity
fluctuations and eddies.
Re>4000
Transition: a flow that
contains both laminar and
turbulent regions
2100<Re<4000 a) red line of the dye at laminar flow, b)
Reynolds number, Re= fluctuations and breaking of the dye
VD/ is the key parameter thread at the transition point, c)
in determining whether or unordered movement of the dye at
not a flow is laminar or turbulent flow
turbulent.
7
5. Uniform Flow, Steady Flow
uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and
direction at every point in the fluid it is said to be uniform.

non-uniform: The velocity is not the same at every point the

flow is non-uniform.

8
steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,
pressure and cross-section) may differ from point to point but DO
NOT change with time

unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change

with time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practise there is
always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the average
values are constant, the flow is considered steady.

9
6. One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

a. Three dimensional flows

All general flows such as a ball flying in the air and a flow around
a moving automobile have velocity components in x, y and z
directions in the x, y and z axial directions as u, v and w, then
u=u(x,y,z,t) v=v(x,y,z,t) w=w(x,y,z,t)

b. Two-dimensional flows
Consider water running between two parallel plates cross-cut
vertically to the plates and parallel to the flow. If the flow states
are the same on all planes parallel to the cut plane, the flow is
called a two-dimensional flow since it can be described by two
coordinates x and y. Expressing the velocity components in the x
and y directions as u and v respectively, then
10
u=u(x,y,t) v=v(x,y,t)
 Two-dimensional flow over a weir

c. One-dimensional flows
Considering water flowing in a tube in term of average
velocity, then the flow has a velocity component in the x
direction only. A flow whose state is determined by one
coordinate x only is called a one-dimensional flow, and its
velocity u depends on coordinate x and t only:
u=u(x,t) 11
12
 7) Streamlines and streamtubes
In analyzing fluid flow it is useful to visualize the flow pattern. This
can be done by drawing lines joining points of equal velocity -
velocity contours. These lines are know as streamlines.

Streamlines around an aircraft wing shaped body

NASCAR surface pressure contours
and streamlines
When fluid is flowing past a solid boundary, e.g. the surface of
an aerofoil or the wall of a pipe, fluid obviously does not flow
into or out of the surface. So very close to a boundary wall the
flow direction must be parallel to the boundary. 13
Close to a solid boundary streamlines are parallel to that boundary
At all points the direction of the streamline is the direction of the fluid
velocity: this is how they are defined. Close to the wall the velocity is
parallel to the wall so the streamline is also parallel to the wall.

It is also important to recognize that the position of streamlines can

change with time - this is the case in unsteady flow. In steady flow,
the position of streamlines does not change.
Some things to know about streamlines
Because the fluid is moving in the same direction as the
streamlines, fluid can not cross a streamline.
Streamlines can not cross each other. If they were to cross
this would indicate two different velocities at the same point.
This is not physically possible.
The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting on
one streamline will stay on that same streamline throughout the
fluid. 14
By taking a given closed curve in a flow and drawing the streamlines
passing all points on the curve, a tube can be formulated (fig.
below). This tube is called a stream tube.
Since no fluid comes in or goes out through the stream tube wall,
the fluid is regarded as being similar to a fluid flowing in a solid tube.

15
And in a two-dimensional flow we have a streamtube which is flat (in
the plane of the paper):

The "walls" of a streamtube are made of streamlines. As have seen

above, fluid cannot flow across a streamline, so fluid cannot cross a
streamtube wall. The streamtube can often be viewed as a solid
walled pipe. A streamtube is not a pipe - it differs in unsteady flow
as the walls will move with time. And it differs because the "wall" is
moving with the fluid

16
 Fluid Flow Rate
Quantity of a gas or liquid moving through a pipe or channel within a given or
standard period (usually a second, minute or hour)
lThere are three forms of fluid flow rate:

1) Volume flow rate

V Q AV (m / s)
3

A is area of section, v is the average velocity/mean velocity of flow

2) Mass flow rate m Q(kg / s )

is density, Q is the volume flow rate

3) Weight flow rate G Q ( N / s )

is specific weight ( weight/volume)

17
 Continuity Equation
Matter cannot be created or destroyed in an chemical (change it
chemical composition) or physical (changes its appearance but not
chemical composition) reactions - (it is simply changed in to a
different form of matter). This principle is know as the conservation
of mass and it is used in the analysis of flowing fluids. The principle
is applied to fixed volumes, known as control volumes (or surfaces),
like that in the figure below:

An arbitrarily shaped control

volume.

18
For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time +
Increase of mass in the control volume per unit time
Continuity Equation
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control
volume, so
For steady flow
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

This can be applied to a streamtube such as that shown in next

slide. No fluid flows across the boundary made by the
streamlines so mass only enters and leaves through the two ends
of this streamtube section.

19
 A streamtube

We can then write

mass entering per unit time at 1 = mass leaving per unit time at 2
1A1u1 2A2u2
Or for steady flow,

1A1u1 2A2u2 Cons tan t m

This is the equation of continuity (conservation of mass).
20
The flow of fluid through a real pipe (or any other vessel) will vary
due to the presence of a wall - in this case the mean velocity is
considered and written as

1 A1u1 2 A2u2 Cons tan t m

When the fluid can be considered incompressible, i.e. the density
does not change, 1 2 so, the equation above become
as
A1u1 A2u2 Q

21
 EXAMPLE
If the area A1 = 10 10-3 m2 and A2 = 3 10-3 m2 and the upstream mean
velocity, v1=2.1 m/s, calculate the downstream mean velocity.

Solution
A1 V1
V2
A2
10 103 2.1

3 103

7 .0 m / s

Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges as in the

figure below.

Section 1 Section 2

Figure 4.3 22
 EXAMPLE
Referring to the Figure the diameter at section 1 is d1 = 30 mm and at section 2
is d2=40 mm and the mean velocity at section 2 is v2 = 3.0 m/s. Calculate the
velocity entering the diffuser.
The downstream velocity only
Solution 2
changes from the upstream by
d2 the ratio of the two areas of the
V1 V2 pipe. As the area of the circular
pipe is a function of the
d1 diameter, we can reduce the
calculation further. Thus,
2
d 22 / 4
40 v1
A2
v2
d 22
v2 2 v2
3.0 A1 d12 / 4 d1
30 d
2

2 v 2
d1
5.3 m / s

23
Another example of the use of the continuity principle is to determine
the velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction

When the flow is incompressible (e.g. if it is water) 1 2

Q1 Q2 Q3
A1u1 A2u2 A3u3
24
EXAMPLE What is the inflow?

u = 1.5 m/s
A = 0.5 m2

u = 1.0 m/s
A = 0.7 m2 u = 0.2 m/s
A = 1.3 m2

Q = 2.8 m3/s Q

Answer
Q = 1.61 m3/s
25
 EXAMPLE
A pipe is split into 2 pipes which are BC and BD as shown in the Figure 4.5.
The following information is given:

diameter pipe AB at A = 0.45 m

diameter pipe AB at B = 0.3 m
diameter pipe BC = 0.2 m
diameter pipe BD = 0.15 m
Calculate:
Volume flow rate at section A if vA = 2 m/s
velocity at section B and section D if velocity at section C = 4 m/s
C

A
B

D
Figure 4.5

26
a)Volume flow rate at section A

QA AA VA
0.452
2
4
0.318 m3 / s

b) Volume flow rate at section A = Volume flow rate at section B

QA QB
AAVA ABVB
AAVA
VB
AB
0.318

0.32 / 4

4.5 m / s
27
 BERNOULLIS EQUATION
Daniel Bernoulli 1700-1782
Merchant, Doctor, Mathematician
Investigated the forces present in a
moving fluid and develop
BERNOULLIS EQUATION

28
Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary
layers (solid wall) and wakes (downstream of bodies), where the fluid motion is
governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.
Conservation of Linear Momentum Principle (Newtons 2nd law)-derivation of
Bernoulli equation.

The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate equation that is valid
only in inviscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to
inertial, gravitational, or pressure
forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers and
wakes.
29
 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
Steady flow
The quantity of fluid flowing past any section to another section at a
constant rate.
No velocity change with time at a specific location. Thus, acceleration
is due to the change of velocity with location only.
Incompressible flow
= constant. The specific weight of the fluid is assumed to be the
same at the two sections of interest.
Frictionless/nonviscous/inviscid flow Every flow involves some friction,
no matter how small, and frictional effects may or may not be
negligible.
Frictional effects and
components that disturb the
streamlined structure of flow
in a flow section make the
Bernoulli equation invalid. It
should not be used in any of
the flows shown here.
There can be no mechanical devices (pump, turbine, fan, or any other
machine or impeller since such devices destroy the streamlines and
carry out energy interactions with the fluid particles) between the two
sections of interest that would add energy to/remove energy from the
system, because the equation states that the total energy in the fluid
is constant.

There can be no heat transferred into/out of the fluid.

Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation is applicable

along a streamline(not conditions on two different streamlines). However,
when a region of the flow is irrotational (i.e., the fluid particles do not spin as
they move) and there is negligibly small vorticity in the flow field, the Bernoulli
equation becomes applicable across streamlines as well.

When the flow is irrotational, the Bernoulli equation

becomes applicable between any two points along
the flow (not just on the same streamline).
31
Derivation of the Bernoullis Equation

Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a

flow field in steady flow.
Applying Newtons second law in s-direction
on a particle moving along a streamline

Forces--- pressure (acting on both sides)

and weight acting in the s-direction

where is the angle between the normal of the streamline.

is the mass,
is the weight of the fluid particle

32
Canceling dA from

VdV = d(V2) and dividing each term by

Integrating,

since the last two term are exact differentials. In case Steady, incompressible
flow , the first term also becomes an exact differential, and integration gives
Potential
energy

Flow
energy Kinetic
energy
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is
constant along a streamline during steady flow when compressibility and
frictional effects are negligible. 33
As stated above, the Bernoulli equation applies to conditions along a streamline.
We can apply it between two points, 1 and 2, on the streamline in the figure below

Two points joined by a streamline

total energy per unit weight at 1 = total energy per unit weight at 2
or
total head at 1 = total head at 2
P1 V12 P2 V22
z1 z2
g 2 g g 2 g
or
total pressure at 1 = total pressure at 2
Dynamic pressure
(pressure rise when fluid in motion)
V12 V22
Static pressure P1 gz1 P2 gz2
(pressure when the 2 2
fluid is not in motion) hydrostatic pressure (fluid weight) 34
 Practical use of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is often combined with the continuity

equation to find velocities and pressures at points in the flow
connected by a streamline.

Example:
Finding pressures and velocities within a contracting and expanding
pipe.

35
A fluid, density = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily through the above tube.
The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
The gauge pressure at 1 is P1=200kN/m2
The velocity at 1 is u1=5m/s.
The tube is horizontal (z1=z2)

Apply the Bernoulli equation along a streamline joining section 1

with section 2.

36
Use the continuity equation to find u2

So pressure at section 2

37
 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
1) Pitot Tube
It is a simple velocity measuring device. If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a
blunt body, the stream lines take a pattern similar to figure below:

Streamlines around a blunt body

38
Note: Some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes
to the tip of the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is
zero - the fluid does not move at this one point. This point is known as the
stagnation point.

From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply
Bernoulli along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is
u1 and the pressure p1 to the stagnation point of the blunt body where the
velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.

39
This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure.

or converting this to head

The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)

or in terms of head

40
The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. I could be a static
column of fluid. In situation in which the static and stagnation of a flowing liquid
are greater than atmospheric pressure ,two piezometers, one as normal and one
as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in an arrangement shown below to
measure velocity of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube

Using the above theory, we have the equation for P2

V12 gh2 gh1 V12 V1 2 g h2 h1

1 1
P2 P1
2 2

The expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements and
the application of the Bernoulli equation.
41
 EXAMPLE
In water treatment plant it is required to monitor the maximum velocity in
the water mains. A pitot-tube is inserted in the centre of the pipe and
connected to two piezometer tubes. If the differential pressure head is 250
mm, estimate the velocity of flow.

Answer:
2.21 m/s

42
2) Pitot Static Tube
The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they can then be easily connected
to a manometer. A Pitot static tube is shown below. This device is applicable if the
pressures to be measured are below atmospheric, or if measuring pressure in
gases. The holes on the side of the tube connect to one side of a manometer and
register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the other side
of the manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).

43
Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot tube and using
the theory of the manometer,
PA P2 gX
PB P1 g X h man gh
PA PB
P2 gX P1 g X h man gh

1 2
We know that P2 Pstagnation P1 u1 , substituting this in to the above gives
2
u12
P1 hg man P1
2
2 gh m
u1

or
2P2 P1
u1
44
45
46
The basic technology of the pitometer log is similar to that of the pitot tube on an
aircraft. Typically, the pitometer has a long tube that penetrates the ship's hull
near the keel.
47
 EXAMPLE
A Pitot-static probe is used to measure the velocity of an aircraft flying at
3000 m( = 0.909 kg/m3). If the differential pressure reading is 3 kPa,
determine the velocity of the aircraft.

Answer:
81.2 m/s

48
3) Venturi Meter(Confined Flows)
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring volume flow rate in a pipe. It
consists of a rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of flow
and hence reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of
the pipe by a gently diverging diffuser section. By measuring the pressure
differences the discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as energy loss are very small.

A Venturi meter

49
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow
throat of the Venturi meter we have

By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

50
To get the theoretical volume flow rate this is multiplied by the area. To get
the actual volume flow rate taking in to account the losses due to friction, we
include a coefficient of volume flow rate

51
This can also be expressed in terms of the manometer readings

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:

52
Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or
orientation (z1 or z2) of the Venturimeter. This means that the meter can be at
any convenient angle to function.

The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises
again to something near to the original value before the Venturi meter. The
angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees. Wider than this and
the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased friction and energy
and pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter becomes very long
and pressure losses again become significant. The efficiency of the diffuser of
increasing pressure back to the original is rarely greater than 80%.

Venturi meter with digital readout

53
 EXAMPLE

A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and
has an entrance of 125 mm diameter and throat of 50 mm diameter. There
are pressure gauges at the entrance and at the throat, which is 300 mm
above the entrance. If the coefficient for the meter is 0.97 and pressure
difference is 27.5 kN/m2, calculate the actual volume flow rate in m3/s.

z1 z2

54
 SOLUTION:

3.1420.125
2
A1 0.01226 m 2
4

3.1420.050
2
A2 0.001964m 2
4

p1 p2 27.5 103 N / m2

0.82 9.811000 8044.2 N / m2

z1 z2 0.3 m
Cd = 0.97

55
 p p2
2g 1 z1 z2
Qactual Cd A1 g
2
A1
1
A2
27.5 103
2g 0.3
Qactual 0.970.01226 8044.2
2
0.01226
1
0.001964
Qactual 0.01535m3 / s

56
4) Flow Through A Small Orifice (Free Jet)
We are to consider the flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to
the base. The general arrangement and a close up of the hole and
streamlines are shown in the figure below

Tank and streamlines of flow out of the sharp edged orifice

57
The shape of the holes edges are as they are (sharp) to minimize
frictional losses by minimizing the contact between the hole and the liquid
- the only contact is the very edge.

Looking at the streamlines you can see how they contract after the orifice
to a minimum value when they all become parallel, at this point, the
velocity and pressure are uniform across the jet. This convergence is
called the vena contracta. (From the Latin .contracted vein. ). It is
necessary to know the amount of contraction to allow us to calculate the
flow.

We can predict the velocity at the orifice using the Bernoulli equation.
Apply it along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface to point 2 at
the centre of the orifice.

At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure atmospheric

(p1 = 0).At the orifice the jet is open to the air so again the pressure is
atmospheric (p2 = 0). If we take the datum line through the orifice then z1
= h and z2 =0, leaving
58
This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately it will be an over estimate
of the real velocity because friction losses have not been taken into account. To
incorporate friction we use the coefficient of velocity to correct the theoretical
velocity,

Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually lie in the range( 0.97
- 0.99). To calculate the volume flow rate through the orifice we multiply the area
of the jet by the velocity. The actual area of the jet is the area of the vena
contracta not the area of the orifice. We obtain this area by using a coefficient
of contraction for the orifice

So the volume flow rate through the orifice is given by

59
 Time for the tank to empty
Expression for the discharge from the tank
Qactual Cd Aorifice 2 gh

Tank emptying from level h1 to h2.

The tank has a cross sectional area of A. In a time dt the level falls by dh or the
flow out of the tank is

(-ve sign as dh is falling) 60

Rearranging and substituting the expression for Qactual through the orifice gives

This can be integrated between the initial level, h1, and final level, h2, to
give an expression for the time it takes to fall this distance

61
 EXAMPLE
A pressurized tank of water has a 10 cm diameter orifice at
the bottom, where water discharges to the atmosphere. The
water level is 3 m above the outlet. The tank air pressure
above the water level is 300 kPa (absolute) while the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Neglecting frictional effects,
determine the initial discharge rate of water from the tank.
Anw:0.168 m3/s

62
SOLUTION:

P1 V12 P2 V22 V22 P1 P2

z1 z2 z1
g 2 g g 2 g 2g g

2( P1 P2 ) 2(300 100 ) kPa 1000 N/m 2 1 kg m/s 2

V2 2 gz1 2(9.81 m/s 2 )( 3 m)
3 1 kPa
1000 kg/m 1N
21.4 m/s

D 2 (0.10 m) 2
V AorificeV2 V2 (21.4 m/s) 0.168 m3 /s
4 4

63
 EXAMPLE
The water level in a tank is 20 m above the ground. A hose is
connected to the bottom of the tank, and the nozzle at the end
of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank cover is airtight,
and the air pressure above the water surface is 2 atm gage.
The system is at sea level. Determine the maximum height to
which the water stream could rise.

64
SOLUTION:

P1 V12 P2 V22 P1 P P1 Patm P1,gage

z1 z2 z1 atm z 2 z2 z1 z1
g 2 g g 2 g g g g g

2 atm 101,325 N/m 2 1 kg m/s 2

z2 20 40.7 m
3 2 1 N
(1000 kg/m )(9.81 m/s ) 1 atm

65
 EXAMPLE

Oil of specific gravity 0.82 discharges from an open tank through an orifice of
diameter 14 mm. The coefficient of velocity is 0.88 and the coefficient of
contraction is 0.62. The centre of the orifice is at a depth of 0.9 m from the
surface of the oil. Determine the diameter of the Vena Contracta and the
volume flow rate of oil through the orifice.

0.9 m
14 mm

66
SOLUTION :

Data:
Specific gravity = 0.82; d = 0.014 mm; Cv = 0.88; Cc = 0.62; h = 0.9 m

(a) d2 0.0142
Ao 1.54 104 m 2
4 4
Ac
Cc
Ao
Substituting the values,
Ac
0.62
1.54 10 4
Ac 0.955 10 4 m 2
or
d c 0.01102m 11.02mm
67
(b) Theoretical velocity

v 2 gh 2 9.81 0.9 4.0202m / s

Theoretical volume flow rate

Q vAo 4.02 1.54 10 4 6.47 10 4 m3 / s

Coefficient of volume flow rate

Cd CvCc 0.88 0.62 0.546

Actual volume flow rate = Cd x Theoretical volume flow rate

0.546 6.47 104
3.53 104 m3 / s
0.353L / s
68
 EXAMPLE
For the tank shown in above, find the time required to drain the tank from a
level of 3.0 m to 0.50 m. The tank has a diameter of 1.50 m and the nozzle has
a diameter of 50 mm.

69
SOLUTION:

70
End of Chapter 4

Any Question?

71