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Bahan Kajian

MK. Pertanian Berkelanjutan

INDIKATOR
PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN

Smno.jrsntnh.fpub.2013
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Activities should be planned and implemented with indicator


measurement in mind
The best indicators are those that are:
1. Direct
2. Objective
3. Adequate
4. Quantitative, where possible
5. Disaggregated, where appropriate
6. Practical
7. Reliable
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PERTANIAN BERKELANJUTAN:

What is it?

We can discuss the properties of Agro-ecosystems


Conways three properties are:
1. Productivity - Produktivitas
2. Stability - Stabilitas
3. Resiliency - Ketahanan

Source: Conway, G.R. and Barbier, E.B. 1990. After the Green Revolution. Sustainable Agriculture for
Development. Earthscan, London. 205 p.
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1.Produktivitas:

Net increment of valued


product per unit of
resource (kg/ha for
example)
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2. Stabilitas:
Degree to which
productivity remains
constant over time
when not faced with a
shock
(1/CV productivity)
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2. Resiliensi:
The ability of a system to
maintain or recover
productivity when
subject to stress or
shock.
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Performance Indicator Reference Sheet (PIRS)

Producers
Producers harvest food, feed and fiber

Food includes grain, fruits and vegetables, livestock, aquaculture, as well as natural products

Producers may also engage in processing and marketing of food, feed and fiber

Producers may reside in settled communities, refugee/IDP camps or be pastoralists .

In this instance, food = agriculture. The expansive definition of agriculture includes grain,
fruits and vegetables, orchards and other tree crops, livestock and livestock products,
aquaculture, as well as natural products
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TEKNOLOGI PERTANIAN
Agriculture technologies refer to :
The practices of combining of land, labor, capital, and knowledge to Produce,
market, distribute, utilize, and trade food, feed, and fiber
Some examples: planting in rows, rotation, integrated farming systems, water
conservation/harvesting, cover cropping, etc.

Contoh-contoh:
1. planting in rows (not broadcasting)
2. crop rotation or intercropping (for soil fertility enhancement
and/or pest management)
3. integrated farming systems (for example, rice-carp-pigs
systems)
4. water conservation and water harvesting
5. cover cropping for erosion control, soil fertility enhancement,
livestock pasture .
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A sustainable agriculture system


Nurtures natural resources and maintains ecological balance
Is driven by market demand and economically viable
Ensures local replicability, gender equity, and social acceptability
Generates predictable income
Considers availability of household labor and seasonality of labor demand
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Elements of sustainability

Consider agricultural activities best adapted to the soils, slope and agro-ecological conditions
Consider sources of technical assistance, technology, input supply and extension support and
farmer previous experience with the technology
Assess the level and source of market demand for the product
Ensure community involvement in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation for
ownership and understanding
Determine optimum scale of the activity
Evaluate policy, legal, customary and cultural context to see that the activity fits
Keep it simple. Focus on priorities. Dont be overly ambitious and consign those taking over to
failure
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Elements of Sustainability:

Is the activity sustainable without continuous external support?


2. An activity cannot be sustainable if it comes at a cost. For example, it should not
Harm the environment
Destroy socio-economic relations
increase tensions and the potential for conflict
3. The activity should do no harm
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Sustainable Livelihoods
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A single agricultural activity is usually one of many activities comprising a households livelihood.
We can think holistically, in terms of sustainable livelihoods, a term that applies to all
livelihoods, not limited to those in agriculture. The British aid agency, DFID, has developed a
sustainable livelihoods framework that shows how we can work within a system to achieve
beneficial impacts on peoples livelihoods in a sustainable way.
The sustainable livelihoods framework presents the main factors that affect peoples livelihoods,
and typical relationships between them.
This framework has several desirable features:
It shows the whole picture;
It allows indirect as well as direct paths to influencing an outcome, such as improved food
security (or any of its elements).
It forces USAID and USAIDs partners to think about what we need to do outside food
security to have an impact inside food security. For example, we could choose to improve food
security by advocating market facilitating policies, institutional training, health and hygiene
education, access to safe water, and so on.
This gives USAID many possible entry points, from improving the vulnerability context, to
strengthening livelihood assets/capital (see definitions below) to influencing policies,
institutions and processes.
Moreover, this framework appears robust to handle most anything USAID would want to do.
The framework allows ample room for every cooperating sponsor, donor and NGO, but
coordination is required from the host national and local governments.
Note that the framework is centered on people and the assets or capabilities that these
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Elements of a Sustainable Livelihood

Livelihoods are sustainable when they:


Are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses

Are not dependent upon external support

Maintain the long-term productivity of natural resources

Do not undermine the livelihoods of others or compromise the livelihood options open to
others

A single agricultural activity is usually one of many activities comprising a


households livelihood.

We can think holistically, in terms of sustainable livelihoods, a term that applies


to all livelihoods, not limited to those in agriculture. The British aid agency, DFID,
has developed a sustainable livelihoods framework that shows how we can
work within a system to achieve beneficial impacts on peoples livelihoods in a
sustainable way.

Livelihoods are sustainable when they:


Are resilient in the face of external shocks and stresses (recall the resilience
graph in slide 8)
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Sustainable Agriculture Questions in the Standardized Annual


Performance Questionnaire (SAPQ)
1. Number of farmers (individuals) that received
extension/outreach services during the FY
2. Number of sustainable agricultural technologies being
transferred
3. A list of those technologies
4. The minimum number of technologies that farmers are
expected to use
5. The percentage of beneficiaries (individual farmers) who
use that minimum number of technologies
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Sustainable Agriculture in the SAPQ (Part II)


Number of farmers (individuals) that received extension/outreach services during the FY
Relatively straight forward
Disaggregate by gender (M/F)
Number of sustainable agricultural technologies being transferred
Less straight forward, what is an agricultural technology?
Germplasm, fertilizer type or timing, row spacing?
Is a package one or more technologies?
Use your judgment, but make it logical and defendable, as guidance from FFP is limited
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Sustainable Agriculture in the SAPQ (Part III)


A list of those technologies
Very straightforward
The minimum number of technologies that farmers are expected to use
How many of those technologies are required to meet criteria for success?
The percentage of beneficiaries (individual farmers) who use the minimum number of
technologies
An indication of the success of your outreach program
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Examples of Successful Sustainable Agriculture Interventions

1. Amnagement en Courbes de Niveau (ACN)

2. Germplasm Collection, Evaluation and Improvement of African Leafy Vegetables

3. Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing Plan


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Amnagement en Courbes de Niveau (ACN)


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ACNs Benefits
Ridge Tillage in the Sahel of West Africa
Increased capture of rainfall
Reduced drought risk to crops
Increase productivity, stability and resiliency
Increased biodiversity
Spontaneous regeneration of three ecologically and economically valuable tree
species (Faidherbia albida (Acacia albida)), Adansonia digitata (baobab) and Vitellaria
paradoxa (shea tree)
Increased drinking water supplies
Reduction in runoff due to ACN results in more recharge of groundwater
Dry season vegetable gardens irrigated with groundwater are now the norm (80%) in
certain villages where 12 years ago there were none
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Germplasm Collection, Evaluation and Improvement of African Leafy Vegetables


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African Leafy Vegetables


Established a germplasm collection in Africa for leafy vegetables species - Brassica carinata
(Ethiopian mustard), Cleome gynandtopsis (spider plant) and Solanum scabrum and S. villosum
(nightshades)
Evaluating agronomic and nutritional traits of hundreds of accessions and surveyed the
indigenous knowledge of the targeted species
Introduced best performing (most productive and nutritious) accessions seeds into existing
seed marketing channels
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Accessions Trials
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Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing Plan


Shea nuts from the shea tree have many multiple uses as an edible fruit, edible oil, body lotion,
soap and traditional medicine

USAID-funded NGOs are working with womens groups in Southern Sudan to process shea nuts
into shea butter (the basic raw material) as an income-generating activity
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Shea Butter: Producers in search of a Marketing Plan


1. These women's groups have mastered all the steps to produce high-quality shea butter
2. But, production is seasonal (4 months) and sales revenues are a fraction of NGO support
3. In short, these groups need help marketing
4. USAID/Sudan will ask the Agricultural Marketing Enterprise Project to develop a market-
oriented business plan for the shea butter groups
5. Sustainability requires expanding the scope of the original activity to make it commercially
viable
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Indicators of Sustainable Agriculture


Profitability
Generates profits over the long-term
Maximizes farmer/rancher control over crops and prices
Supports a family at a standard of living that includes health care, education, and vacations
Minimizes reliance on government subsidies
Has a succession plan. Succession plan means have a plan for who will operate the farm after
the current ownership.

Environmental Stewardship
Builds and maintains soil organic carbon to level appropriate for soil and climate
Prevents soil erosion
Balances nutrient inputs and outputs
Maintains clean water
Maximizes water conservation
Minimizes dependence on non-renewable resource fuels and purchased production inputs
Minimizes use of toxic substances
Uses integrated pest management practices
Maximizes crop rotation
Encourages diversity of plant varieties and/or livestock breeds
Encourages diversity of plants and animals within the landscape
www.envirothon.org/pdf/indicators_of_sustainable_agriculture.pdf
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A Farm-Based Indicator of
Agricultural Sustainability
Farmers as Adaptive Managers of
Natural capital
"The appellation of the word
'sustainable' to a farming system
remains a matter of opinion. Most
farmers and agricultural professionals
have a 'feel' for what 'sustainable'
is."
(Smith, M., 1994. The Real Dirt: Farmers Tell About Organic and
Low-Input Practices in the Northeast, Northeast Organic Farmers
Association.)
To paraphrase Rodale:

Sustainability is like being


pregnanteither you are or you
arent.
Goal: To develop a readily-measurable indicator of
farm (agroecosystem) sustainability. The difficulty of
measurement should be comparable to organic
certification. Such an indicator would enable:

Policy makers to support sustainable farm


operations through legislation.
Consumers to support sustainable farm
operations through purchases.
Farmers to analyze and address the
sustainability of their own operations.
First we need a definition:
"A sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long-term,
enhances environmental quality and the resource base on
which agriculture depends; provides for basic human food
and fiber needs; is economically viable and enhances the
quality of life for farmers and society as a whole" (FAO,
1989).

Nice, but difficult to operationalize.


Characterizations of
agricultural sustainability Taken
from: Hansen, J.W., 1996. Is Agricultural Sustainability a Useful Concept?
Agricultural Systems, 50:117-143.

Four frameworks for defining sustainability.


Each framework leads naturally to methods of
measurement.
1. Sustainable agriculture as an ideology or
philosophy.

Agriculture which embodies variously defined values such as:

Diversity
Self-sufficiency
Respect for Nature
Decentralization
Social Equity

Examples include: organic farming, biodynamic farming, and permaculture.

Leads to a binary measure of sustainability: A farm is sustainable if it


follows a certain philosophy.
2. Sustainable agriculture as a set of practices.

An approved set of sustainable practices is defined. Practices


are chosen by their ability to maintain production while limiting
environmental impact.

These often include:

Biological or organic pest controls


Organic Soil Amendments
Low stocking rates for animals
Integrated Pest Management
Conservation Tillage Practices
This also leads to natural measures of sustainability:

A farm that restricts itself to the defined set


of practices is deemed sustainable.

This is a common framework used to craft indicators.


Leads to a continuous measure of sustainability.
Can lead to circular reasoning:

Sustainable farms are those which


adopt the practices used by
sustainable farms.
This would readily imply that organic
certification is a sufficient condition
for sustainability.
3. The ability to satisfy a diverse set of goals.

A farm is sustainable if it is able to (pick any or all):

Maintain a high level of production.


Preserve and enhance natural capital.
Provide a livelihood for a farm family.
Sustain a rural culture.
This is the framework for the FAO definition. It
is the most difficult of the four to
operationalize.

Goals are indeed diverse and often difficult to measure


in an efficient and concise manner.
Commensurability is a major obstacle in crafting a
numeric indicator.
Consider such a condition for Vermont
Farmers:

A list of goals for the sustainable Vermont farm would


include:

High level of production, both economic and


ecological.
Must not get too big so as not to inconvenience
neighbors.
Must maintain rural landscape of Vermont.
Reduce run-off into Lake Champlain.
4. The ability to continue.
Or in the words of Costanza and Patten (1995):
A sustainable system is one which survives
or persists.

This is the most intuitive definition.

Fits the English!

This is the framework I will use from here on.


This naturally leads to the following two questions:

Which system should persist?

For how long?


For our purposes:

What system: The farm or agroecosystem as


an economic, social, and ecological entity.
For how long: As long as its existence is
useful to and desired by the family that
manages it and the community it serves.

Note: Not forever!


Qualification: The survival of the farm system depends
on the survival of any supersystem which contains it. This
includes the encompassing watershed, global systems, and
agroeconomic systems.

Therefore: This definition precludes any negative


impacts of the farm system upon the supersystems
that contain and sustain it.
The crafting of indicators:

According to Costanza and


Patten(1995:194), "What passes as definitions of
sustainability are often predictions of actions
taken today that one hopes will lead to
sustainability."
The same is true of indicators.

Any present measurement is at best a


prediction of sustainability.
Elements of a good indicator:

System oriented
Quantitative
Predictive
Stochastic
Diagnostic (Hansen, 1996)
Readily measurable (Rigby, 2001)
Characterization of agricultural
indicators.

1. Reductionist vs. Holistic

A reductionist indicator takes measurements of


individual components within an
agroecosystem.
Rigby et al. (2001): seed sourcing, soil fertility,
pest/disease control, weed control, and crop
management.

Bockstaller et al. (1997): nitrogen and


phosphorous flows, pesticide use, irrigation,
organic matter, energy, crop diversity, soil
structure, soil cover, and ecological structures.
Two types of reductionist indicators:
Primary predictors vs. Secondary
predictors

A primary predictor has an a priori concept of what


sustainable measurements are for various components
i.e. soil organic matter, nutrient flow rates, levels of crop
diversity, etc. By comparing actual measurements to
desired levels, a primary predictor predicts the
likelihood of a system persisting.
A secondary predictor examines practices. It also
has an a priori concept of what the components of
a sustainable system should look like, but it focuses
on the effect of various practices on individual
components.

Practices -----effect-----Components-----effect-----Sustainability
Why do I keep saying Predicted?

Dont we know the impacts of different practices?


Dont we know the characteristics of a sustainable system?

For simple systems, maybe.


For complex, nonlinear agroecosystems, probably not!
Holistic Indicators
A holistic indicator looks for measurements
at the systems level that enable a prediction
to be made regarding sustainability.
Examples:
Non-negative time trend in output
Total factor productivity
Resilience
Stability
A brief overview of
Productivity as an Indicator of
Sustainability
A farm or agroecosystem is first and foremost
a system of production.
A system of production has the goal of
converting inputs into desirable outputs.
Any definition of agricultural sustainability
must ultimately focus on the ability to
produce.
Arguments against:
Correlates to a weak sustainability
assumption.
Might hide internal degradation until collapse
is unavoidable.
Ignores impacts on supersystem.
Difficulty selecting units of measurements
(more on this later).
Arguments for:
Necessary condition for sustainability.
Maximizes micro-level freedom with macro-
level control.
Recognizes the adaptive management abilities
of the farmer.
Following Conway, we want a productivitydefined as
Output/Inputthat is characterized by:

Appropriately high levels

Stability over time

Resilience when affected by perturbations


Addressing the issue of commensurability-
Three measurements of productivity:

Biological (biomass)

Economic (dollars)

Ecological Economic (true costs)


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