G.

Jothinathan
Project Consultant
Centre for NonDestructive Evaluation-MDS
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai 600 036

Email gj@iitm.ac.in
Ph. 4218 4781
Cell 98411 07465

GJ,IITM,Chennai 1
PT
Fundamentals:
Interaction of penetrants and discontinuity
openings (properties required of penetrants)
Fluorescence and contrast (Types of penetrants)
Liquid penetrant testing:
Penetrant processes
Test equipment and system factors
Test result interpretation; discontinuity indications
Applications-
castings,
welds,
wrought metals,
machined parts,
leaks and
field inspections. Standard Blocks

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PT involves developing an indication of a
discontinuity and the indications width is
very much larger than the actual width of the
surface open discontinuities so as to be seen
or be detected by the unaided human eye

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 PT can be classifed as a Surface NDT method
This method is not restricted to ferromagnetic
materials only like MT. It can be applied on all
materials ferrous and nonferrous metals and
also on nonmetals like rubber, plastics, ceramics
etc.
This is the major advantage over MT
But this method can detect only defects that are
on the surface and open to the surface
Cannot detect subsurface defects. This is one major disadvantage

Open lip and closed lip

Can detect GJ,IITM,Chennai Cannot detect

 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
Is applicable to discontinuities that are open to the surface or
surface connected
As surface opening is required, it cannot detect
anomalies like inclusion, segregation even on
the surface etc
Crack indication

Human eye acuity Indication width >than

The actual discontinuity

It essentially involves getting an indication whose

width is very much larger than the actual one and
that can be easily seen GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Sensitivity and applications
Applications on all materials (compared to MT)
metals(ferrous and nonferrous)
nonmetals (rubber,plastic etc)
all type of defects
open to the surface
-leak testing( how it can be used!!)

Normally not applicable to porous materials

(unfired ceramics and powder metallurgical
parts)
Filtered particle penetrant porous materials
Rough surfaces pose problem- > 125 m
This simple and easy to apply method has
Sensitivity equal or better than MT
better than RT for surface disntinuities
1 m x 10 m x 50 m can be detected
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 Almost any material
that has a relatively
smooth, non-porous
surface on which
discontinuities or
defects are
suspected.

Geometry, complicated shapes and

orientation of defects do not pose much
problems unlike other NDT methods
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 What Can NOT be Inspected Via PT?
Components with rough surfaces, such as
sand castings, that trap and hold penetrant.
Porous ceramics
Wood and other fibrous materials.
Plastic parts that absorb or react with the
penetrant materials.
Components with coatings that prevent
penetrants from entering defects.

Defect indications become

less distinguishable as the
background noise level
increases.

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 Used to locate cracks, porosity and other
defects that break the surface of a material.
Liquid penetrant testing is used to find flaws
in a large veriety of materials and in parts
ranging from spark plugs to jet engine fan blades
All defects that are open to the surface.
Rolled products-- cracks, seams, laminations.
Castings--cold shuts, hot tears, porosity, blow
holes, shrinkage.
Forgings cracks, laps, external bursts.
Welds cracks, porosity, undercut, overlap, lack
of fusion, lack of penetration.

Can be used for leak testing- how ?

Lamination- can it be detected by PT
Porosity which method is better MT or PT
Cracks - which method is better MT or PT
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 A Quick look at the History and others
The oil and whiting method used by railways in
the early 1900 to check the rails for the crack can
be ragarded as the true parent of penetrant
testing.
Then Black oxidised oil is the penetrant
Soapy water or kerosene is the remover
Chalk powder, white wash is the developer
The modern penetrant testing has all the above features
Well formulated penetrant in place of black oxidised oil
Solvents and emulsifiers in place of kerosene & soap water
Same chalk even now as the developer
1925 MPI more sensitive for ferromagnetic materials
air craft industries looked for better than oil
& whiting method entire nonferrous industry
1942 Fluorescent penetrant subsequently visible dye visible?

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 PT MT

Materials All materials Only

including ferromagnetic
nonmetlas materials
Defect Only surface and Surface and
Detection surface open subsurface 6mm
Surface Rigorous Not that much
preparation Paint & rust of
Good for porosity Not that good
G. - equal or better Good for cracks
Sequence PT first MT could be
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The basic steps are
1. Surface preparation
2. Application of penetrant
3. Removal of excess surface penetrant
4. Apllication of developer and Developing
5. Inspection & Evaluation
6. Post cleaning

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 Penetrant Inspection
Penetrating
fluid applied
to clean surface of
component

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 Penetrant Inspection

Penetrating fluid enters defect

by means of capillary action
(surface active property)

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 Penetrant Inspection

Excess penetrant removed from

surface (Suitably)

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 Penetrant Inspection

Developer applied to
surface

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Penetrant Inspection

Development time for

indications to appear on
surface

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Advantages of Penetrant Inspection
Applicable to all materials metals and nonmetals
Able to test large parts with portable kit
Suitable for batch testing
May not require electricity or water
Applicable to small parts with complex geometry
Simple, cheap and easy to interpret
Sensitivity

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Disadvantages of Penetrant Inspection
Will only detect defects open to the surface
(Inclusion,segregation even on surface cannot be
detected-surface opening is required)
Requires careful surface preparation
Not normally applicable to porous surfaces(Filtered
particle P)
Mention some components that may be porous
Temperature dependant ( 4-49deg.C) Outside this
temperature say at 65 deg. C, how to go about
Cannot retest indefinitely- why
Compatibility of chemicals(penetrant and plastics
alkaline developer and Al)

Only detection of surface open discontinuities

and no depth assessment depth only qualitative
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 Composition of penetrants

Penetrant is a highly penetrating liquid with very

high colouration for easy identification

1.Organic Oil base say similar to lubricating oil

2.Dye (visible or fluorescent)

3. Solvents and stabilising agents.

Actually, some penetrants contain 18 consitituents

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 Penetrant Inspection
Types of Penetrant
Fluorescent Type I
Colour contrast-Type II
Dual- Type III
Based on the dye that is incorporated in penetrant
Dual- Type III
Contain both the dyes

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 Types of Penetrant
Type Some details Remarks
Type I:Fluorescent dye Fluorescence Highly sensitive
(Brightness contrast) Emitting light Needs black light
/colour & dark room booth
Can be viewed Not that suitable
only under for field
black light (?) in applications
dark ambience
Type II Visible dye Visible red Sensitivity is low
Colour contrast colour in normal Good for field
light applications
Type III Dual Inspection Convenient to
Both the dyes under ambient operators for
light for gross immediate
discontinuities acceptance
Black light for /rejection
fine
discontinuities
1.White light for gross discontinuities-?-Decision-a or r
Black light and inspection for fine discontinuities
2. Large tanks and gun barrels inside fluorescent
Outside visible
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 Visible Vs Fluorescent PT
Inspection can be
performed using visible (or
red dye) or fluorescent
penetrant materials.
Visible PT is performed under
white light while fluorescent
PT must be performed using
an ultraviolet light in a
darkened area. All are all in
the level 1 sensitivity range Photo Courtesy of Contesco

Fluorescent PT is more sensitive

than visible PT because the eye is
more sensitive to a bright indication
on a dark background. Sensitivity
ranges from 1 to 4.

White light viewing Photopic vision

Viewing under dark- Scotopic vision
Visible and fluorescnet dye indication -Comparison
Penetrant Type Visible dye Fluorescent dye
Properties

Indication Bright red colour Yellowish green

glow(on excitation)
Background White colour of Dark (max. 2
the developer ft.candles -black
Colour contrast ~1:10 ~1:100
ratio
Visibility(seeability) Medium Very high

Halation Normal High

effect(ability of the
eye to magnify the
indication)
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Sensitivity Medium
 Comparison between visible dye penetrant fluorescent
penetrant indication
Fluorescent type is more sensitive compared to visible

Fluorescent type and among the three methods of

removal which method is more and why

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 Types are further classified into methods
Each of these are further classified as methods
1. Water washable WW ( Method A)
2. Post emulsifiable PE lippophilic (Method B)
3. Solvent removable SR (Method C )
4. Post emulsifiable Hydrophilic ( Method D)
-classification is based on the method by which the
excess penetrant is removed in the excess penetrant
removal step.
Simple water washing water washable A
Solvent wiping solvent removable C
Emulsifying &removing post emulsifiable B & D
Simple water washing is not possible as the
penetrant is organic oil base and hence the
penetrant contains one more constituent
namely emulsifier that is this is self emulsifying
compared to post emulsifing
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 3. Removal of Excess Penetrant
Penetrating fluid removed from component surface
(but not from defect)

Water washable
Solvent Removable
Post Emulsifiable
Water washable single step advantage - simple
Post emulsifiable two steps close control of e.time

Why all these- why not any one- requirement (sensitivity),

feasibility, convenience, and others

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Sensitivity levels
Classes of removers

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When the liquid will be penetrating

Penetrant required properties

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 Two main properties
Wettability- ability to spread over the surfac
Capillarity ability to rise in capillary
ability to enter into small openings

Wettability is determined by contact angle

a. low contact angle contact angle 90 deg. High contact angle

Contact angle need be low penetrants have less than

10 or 5 deg.

Low contact angle means the liquid has

attraction towards the solid surface
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 More points on contact angle
Contact angle is property of not only the liquid but also depends on solid surface

Penetrant wets well Al and Mg

does not wet that well on stainless steel
does not at all wet on Tungsten
Contact angle of liquids on various surfaces
Materials in Contact Remarks
contact angle -deg
Water glass 0 Water wets clean glass
surface
Water 107 Water does not wet
paraffin paraffin
Mercury 140 Hg does not wet glass
glass
Water silver 90 Water wetting is not
that good as one
In the case of stainless steel, Tungsten what is the practice
variable that need be controlled
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to carry out proper
 Because of adhesive forces
liquid will have a tendency rise
in the small openings

So contact angle is basically required for the liquids

rise. For large rise one more property or force is requied
and that is surface tension
Surface tension is the contractile force per unit length
acting on the surface of liquid to have minimum
surface area N/m

So the capillary pressure is T Cos

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Surface tension and contact angle determine the
ability of the penetrant to enter into small openings

Viscosity has got no role in affecting the pentrating

ability of the liquid but influences the rate of
penetration
The speed of penetration is T Cos /
Lower viscosity penetrants penetrates faster
So the basic penetrant required properties are
contact angle & surface tension &
Viscosity

However no single or two properties make a penetrant

good or bad. Many properties are required
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In PT, finally an indication is obtained
Of course after excess penetrant removal and
Development
Visibility of the indication is next important aspect
Seeability need be better colour contrast ratio need be high
Visible dye Red bright red vs white high colour
contrat ratio high compared to other colours

Flourescent dye fluorescence is emission of light

light can be better seen in dark
very high contrast ratio

Fluorescent penetrant more sensitive than visible

dye (Brightness contrast and colour contrast)
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 Other properties
With contact angle, surface tension and colour contrast
ratio, penetrant has done an excellent job- revealed
very fine discontinuities at a reasonable time-what next
Safety of the operator _OSHA
Protection of the material design and quality

OSHA- flash point and toxicity

Flash point and fire point - closed cup test
Materials corrosion, degradation etc
With all these required properties , do we have any
control over sp.gravity personally no
Specific gravity of penetrants is not adjusted but it so happens
the penetrant formulation ends up with specific gravity of less
than one. It has got an impact -

Where or on what
 Summary
Penetrant required properties for
1.Penetration of dye into small openings ( T & )
2. Penetration in a reasonable time ( )
3.Safety of the operator(Flash point& nontoxicity)
4.Inertness towards materials (organic oils)-except
plastics
5. Long life and economy (stabilisers)

6. Specific gravity incidental but has a bearing on PT

7. Volatility

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Surface preparation

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 Preparation of parts
3.1.2 The possible contaminants on the components are
1.Oil and grease
2. Rust or scales (Oxidation products)
3. Paints and conversion coatings
4. Carbon, Varnish etc
5. water
3.1.3 Sources
1. Surface protection against corrosion
2. Surface treatment for improvement of properties
3. Fabrication processes and subsequent treatment
3.1.4 Interference by contaminants
1.physical blocking of the discontinuity (eg
Rust or scale paint or conversion coatings)
2.disturbing the balanced composition of the
penetrant (eg. Oil, water etc)
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3. Entering and occupying the discontinuities. Oil, water etc)
 Simple wiping Organic contaminants
Solvent Cleaning
Vapour degreasing like oil, grease etc
Ultrasonic cleaning

Chemical cleaning Acid cleaning Mainly rust,

Alkaline Cleaning
scales,
Detergent oxides
cleaning

Wire brushing Mainly scales

Mechanical Sand blasting and difficult
cleaning Grinding to remove
Machining smudge etc

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 Some machining, surface finishing and cleaning operations
(sand blasting, grit blasting) can cause a thin layer of metal to
smear on the surface and prevent penetrant from entering any
flaws that may be present.
Etching of the surface prior to inspection is sometimes required.

Incidentally what are these cracks heat treatment or grinding cracks

PT after PT after PT after mechanicl
chemical mechanical cleaning and
cleaning cleaning etching
Normally etchants remove metal of the order of microns
and it should not affect the dimension and also the
microstructure normally GJ,IITM,Chennai
very mild acid solution
2.4.2 Temperature range for penetrant testing
For a standard technique, the temperature of the penetrant and the part
shall not be below 10oC ( 50 F) nor above 52o C ( 125oF). For other
temperature ranges, qualification of the process with a Comparator, as
described in Fig. below, shall be employed. The proposed procedure which is
desired beyond the temperature range, shall be applied to one of the two
blocks ( Block B), with identical defects. A standard procedure which has
been demonstrated as suitable for use shall be applied to the other block(
Block A) in the temperature range of 10 oC ( 50 F) to 52o C ( 125oF). SG
4- 49 deg.C

A
3 in
3/8 in.

2 in

Figure 0: The Liquid Penetrant

Comparator (with identical defects).
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 Application of penetrant
Penetrant can be applied by
immersion, dipping ,spraying, swabbing and
pouring.

The only requirement is that a thin layer of

penetrant should be present for the specified time
(dwell time) on the surface to be inspected.

Dwell time : The total time the penetrant is

contact with the test surface including the time
required for application and for drain .
Dwell time = application time + drain time
Normally 10-30 mts. Depends on the size and
nature of discontinuity and the material and
surface condition of the material etc.
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Penetrant Application Step
2
Many methods
of application
are possible
such as:
Brushing
Spraying
Dipping/
Immersing
Flow-on
And more

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Table 2.4: Factors influencing the dwell time

Factors Example Properties

that are
affected
1. Type of test Al, Steel, Glass, Titanium ,
material
2. Form of test parts Casting, Weldment, Forging ,
etc
3.Class of Porosity,Fatigue crack, lack Capillarity,
discontinuity of fusion etc width of
opening
4. Type of penetrant W W or any other penetrant penetrability

5. Surface condition Rough or smooth

6.Temperature of the
parts and penetrant
T , and

10 mts and above based on the above

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Before going to the removal of excess penetrant on the
surface

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 How to remove an oil base penetrant from the surface oil in
shirt - same way oil base penetrant can be removed from the
surface
By use of solvents making a solution-solvent removable- petrol wash
By use of dispersants making a dispersion so as to be removed by
water- PE -detergents Wash- soap & use of detergent powder

To make it water removable / water washable,

emulsifier is in built in penetrant

Dispersive agent is an emulsifier

Emulsifier essentially breaks one of the constituents into fine particles so
that the mixing is at the micro level. Mixing of oil and water mechanically is
not always that easy . An emulsifier makes it
For example, the liver secretes bile, a liquid that helps to break down fat into
tiny globules i.e. it helps to emulsify fat so that enzymes can begin their work.

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 Removal of excess penetrant
The excess surface penetrant on the surface is
carefully removed without affecting the penetrant
that is residing in the discontinuity.
This is an important step as the unremoved excess
surface penetrant will affect subsequently by
affecting the contrast of the indication and if any
penetrant in the discontinuity is disturbed the volume
of the penetrant indication will get reduced (The
volume of penetrant is already very small)

In any NDT method the Signal to Noise ratio is

important and this should be as high as possible
S- Volume of penetrant that has entered into the
discontinuity
N- Unremoved excess surface penetrant in the discontinuity

It is obvious that in PT to achieve a high S/N ratio, the

excess penetrant on the surface should be removed as
completely as possible andGJ,IITM,Chennai
the penetrant is the discontinuity
should not be lost by overwashing
 Penetrant removal methods

1.Dissolve and remove (SR)

2.Break / Disperse (emulsify) and remove by
water PE
3.Simply water wash if penetrant contains built in
Emulsifier (WW)

Solution and dispersion solvents and emulsifiers

(eg)

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 Solvent removable
In this method the excess surface penetrant is removed by solvent
action by using organic solvents that have solvent action on
the oil base penetrants.

Methods and precautions that must be used during the

solvent removal process includes; Removal initially with dry
lint free clothe and then later with lint free clothe moistened
(not soaked) with solvent. Solvent should never be applied
directly (the only exception will be for weld inspection)

Solvent is never applied directly to the specimen as it

might wash out or dilute the penetrant in the discontinuity.
 Water washable simple water washing / rinsing
Washing techniques:

1)Plentiful volume of water at moderate pressures 30 - 40 psi

2)Coarse water supply
3)Temp.100 deg.F ( hot water easier but may affect the signal)
4)Bottom and move up
5)Spray angle (30 to 70 deg)
6
7. The rinse time should not exceed 120 seconds-E-165
8. The min.distance between the nozzle and the component-
12
9. Under removal and overemovalE.-165

.
Assessing Effectiveness of removal of
Visible & Fluorescent dye
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 2.5.2.3 Post emulsifiable penetrants

In this system of penetrant, post emulsification

and then water washing is used to remove the
excess surface penetrant. There are two
variations namely lipophilic and hydrophilic types
of emulsifiers.The mechanism of action is different
In the first the emulsifier acts by diffusion and in
the second the action is one of agitation.

Once emulsification is completed, further

emulsification is stopped by application of
water on the entire surface and the removal of
emulsified penetrant is by water rinsing as in
the case of water washable penetrant.

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Development of hydrophilic Rolls royce - why

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GJ,IITM,Chennai
 2.6.3 Application of emulsifiers
Lipophilic emulsifier are applied using dipping or
flowing and never by brushing. This is due to the
fact that forced mixing with the penetrant affects
the control of emulsification time and also forcing
of emulsifier in the discontinuity thereby
emulsifying the penetrant in the discontinuity.
Spraying is also not permitted for the same
reason. Brushes can be used for flowing.
Hydrophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion or
spray. In the case of immersion some agitation is
required for effective emulsification
Emulsification time & improper
emulsification
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 2.7 Developing
After the removal of the excess surface penetrant , in developing
step, the penetrant from the discontinuity is brought to the surface
so as to form an visible indication.

2.7.1 Developer functions

The developer functions are
1) To assist the natural seepage of the penetrant in the
discontinuity and extract or blot out the penetrant so as to form an
visual indication (mechanism of visual indication).
2) To provide a contrasting base which enhances the detection an
indication. Blue-black to yellowish green: white to red.
3) To spread the penetrant so as to increase the apparent size of
the indication
4) To mask some confusing indications
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Developers classification ( forms)
Dry powder a
Aqueous(water based-soluble and suspended) b & c
Non aqueous (solvent based) d, e
Special type plastic film developer fe -
**
Based on requirement (sensitivity) and easy
application and removal

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 Developers
The role of the developer is to pull trapped
penetrant out of defects and to spread it out on the
surface so that it can be seen.
Alos provides a proper background to increase
contrast when visible penetrant is used.
Developer materials are available in several different
forms
Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that
clumps together where penetrant bleeds back to
the surface to produces very defined indications.
Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water that
covers the surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when
the water is evaporated. The solution is somewhat difficult to
maintain as the powder settles out over time.
Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution
when mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface
when the water is driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition
and look milky. Not recommended for use with water-washable
penetrants.
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Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most
 Natural seepage
Reverse capillary
Concentration gradient Developer Particles
Absorbed Penetrant

No Developer

Thickness
Increased

Width is more

Figure : Mechanism of Developer .

Forms and mode of application

Developing time 10 30 mts-

1 hr GJ,IITM,Chennai
2 hrs
2.7.2 Forms of developers (MIL-I- 25135E)
1. Dry developers (Form a)
Water-soluble (Form b)
2. Wet developers
Water-suspended (Form c)
3. Non-aqueous developers (non-aqueous suspended) (Form d)
4. Special type of developers (Plastic film developers) (Form e)
2.7.4 Composition of developers
Dry developers use fine absorbing materials in the size range 2-4 m.
Materials like Talc, chalk etc that are white in color is most preferred.
Wet developers that are aqueous using materials similar to the ones
used above and dispersing agents, wetting agents and corrosion
inhibitors

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2.7.5 Application of developers
Table 2.9: Mode of application and surface condition for the application

The state of surface is different for different type of developers. The wet
developers are applied in wet condition and specimen is dried subsequently.
In the case of dry and non-aqueous dry developers. The specimen is dried
and then the developer is applied. This is summarized in the table.

Type of developer Mode of application Surface condition

D-dry and W-wet

1. Dry Developers 1. Air suspension D

2. Electrostatic spraying D
3. Immersion D

2.Wet developers 1. Dipping W

1. Aqueous wet 2. Spraying W
W
2. Water soluble W

Dipping
Spraying
3. Pouring

3. Non-aqueous: 1. Spraying (no dipping) D

1. Solvent Suspended 2. Spraying (no dipping) D
2. Plastic film developer
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GJ,IITM,Chennai
Type of developer Sensitivity Mechanism and advantages

1.Dry 1.Immersion Least sensitive 1) Only Absorption

2.Dust cloud (detects only macro and 2) Simple
3.Fluidised midrange and not micro- 3) Easy removal
4.Electrostatic cracks) 4) Good on rough surfaces
5) Better resolution
6) Non-corrosive

2. Wet Aqueous Absorption

a. Water suspended 1) Large scale high volume
Immersion 2) inspection
Spray
b. Water soluble
Immersion
Spray Smooth surfaces
3) Removal problem
4) Nontoxic

3. Plastic Film Absorption and Solvent action

Developer 1) High resolution
2) Recording of indication

4.Solvent suspended Highest sensitive Absorption &Solvent action

Developer Solvent contained in the developer
provides effective contact between the
developer particle and the penetrant
1) Smooth surfaces
2) Large scale high volume inspection.

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Inspection, interpretation and evaluation

Developing action at the end of developer time reveals

an indication. In this step the indications are
interpreted as to the origin of the indication namely
whether True or false indications and if true indication
whether relevant or nonrelevant and if relevant as to
the nature of discontinuities linear or volumetric
True indication Relevant
Non relevant
False indication Improper processing

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GJ,IITM,Chennai
 2.8.1 Inspection environment
Visible dye penetrant indications are inspected under
white light and fluorescent dye penetrant ndications
are viewed under black light (ultraviolet light?)

Electromagnetic radiation spectrum

Visible and ultraviolet spectrum
Visible light spectrum -380 nm to 700 nm ( V to R ) or 3800
Ao to 7000 Ao
Ultraviolet spectrum - 10 nm to 380 nm or 100 3800A o
Black light spectrum - 320 nm to 380 nm
(with peak at365 mm)

Source of black light

Hg arc vapour lamp produces ultraviolet light in addition to
visible light. The filters are used to remove the harmful
portion of UV (below 320 nm) and also visible light which
affects the fluorescence of the fluorescent dye. The filters
that are commonly used give black light with maximum
peak intensity at 365 nm.. GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Perception of Colour and fluorescence

Colour eye perceives part of the white light that is

reflected by the surface that is flooded with the
white light

Fluorescence colour Emission of visible light (any

colour) on the impingement of high energy radiation on
the surface.
In PT & MT, the impingement of black light (UV) on the
dye component leads to emission of yellowish green
light

Black light
Yellowish green
light

Fluorescent dye

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Environment and others Visible Dye Fluorescent Dye
Penetrant Penetrant

Environment White light Black light

4000 A to 7000 A 3200 A to 4000 A
400 nm to 700 nm 320 nm to 400 nm

Sources Sun light Tubular BLB

Incandescent lambs, fluorescent lamb
Fluorescent tubes etc Enclosed mercury arc vapour lamp
Hg arc vapour lamps with filters are
normally used.

Intensity or 1.300 -550 lux or 1. 10 microwatt/sq.cm

illumination level 30- 55 foot candles to 500 microwatt/ ''
for gross defects where indication for coarse cracks
is large. 2. 30 - 5000 microwatt/sq.cm
for fine cracks
2. 1000 lux or (Note: Intensity can be altered by adjusting
100 ft candles for the distance between the black light and
fine indications the surface)
Others Light source that is deficient in the 1. White light intensity
light reflected by the penetrant is in black light booths
preferable should not exceed
2 ft.candles (20 lux)
2. Dark room adaptation
time 5-10 mts
3. Intensity measurement
meters as the output is
affected by age of the
lamp, voltage and the
cleanliness of the filter
GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Standard test specimen in PT
1. Aluminum comparator blocks penetrant quality
2. Chrome plated steel specimen sensitivity

.9 evaluation of test
3 sensitivity, test
pieces for comparison

The performance is evaluated by means of

quench cracked Al 2024 comparator block
Cannot be taken as sensitivity check as only one
size of crack is presentty

Test sensitivity is evaluated by means of chrome

plated steel specimens.
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GJ,IITM,Chennai
GJ,IITM,Chennai
Sensitivity level
1 2 3 4
50 m 40 m 20 or 30 m 10 m

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Equipments
Penetrant Test kit aerosol cans

Wet developer drier station after developer station

Dry & noaqueous drier first and developer

Black light booths after rinse station - why

GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Choice of penetrant types (2)
penetrant methods (4)
developers (5)

Depends on 1. Requirement say sensitivity

2. Feasibility limitation due to
many factors
3. Convenience & cost
GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Choice of methods & summary
Type I more sensitive black light and darkened area
Type II less sensitive white light sufficient
Methods
WW one step process less sensitive good for rough
surfaces & others- not good for shallow discontinuites
suitable for casting & welding with rough surfaces
SR no water req. no black light - site, on field application
PE highly sensitive good for shallow discontinuities- not
good for rough surfaces black light is required
Developers
Dry low sensitivity good for rough surfaces
resolution better easy removal
Wet aquoeus medium good for smooth surfaces
Wet nonaquoeus highly sensitive- removing problem
GJ,IITM,Chennai
 Casting, welding & other forms
Casting porosity, cold shut, hot tear, cold and hot
cracks can be detected Sand casting WW
Investement casting - PE

Welding porosity, lack of penetration, lack of side

wall fusion, cold and hot cracks

Forming laps, seam, external bursts

Leak testing what is leak -

Depth cannot be ascertained

GJ,IITM,Chennai
 PT & MT Comparison

PT MT
Materials All including nonmetals Limited to ferromagnetic
plastic and rubber materials - magnetised
Surface Rigorous Not that much scale,
condition rust & paint coatings

Simple & cheap

Sensitivity
Good for porosity Not good

GJ,IITM,Chennai
Comparison of Visible dye and Fluorescent dye penetrant

Visible Fluorescent
Sensitivity less high
Viewing Good white light Black light & dark ambience
Application Because of 2 convenient Not that good as black light and
& useful for spot examination dark are

GJ,IITM,Chennai
Comparison of Water washable, Solvent Removable and
Post Emulsifiable dye penetrants
WW SR Fluorescent
Sensitivity Low Med. high High Control of emulsification
Overwahing time- overwashing tend. reduced
Shallow D Not good Can be adjusted Can detect
Others Convenience Two step process
1 Step process
Design Good Not good
features
Press fits
Surfaces Good for rough Not good
surfaces

GJ,IITM,Chennai
Comparison of Dry, aqueous wet and Nonaqueous wet

Dry Aquoeus Nonaquoeus

Sensitivity Low Med. High additional solvent action
Others Convenience Easy removal Difficult to remove
Easy removal
Surfaces Good for rough Adjustable Not good
surfaces

GJ,IITM,Chennai
Comparison of Visible dye and Fluorescent dye penetrant

Visible Fluorescent
Sensitivity less high
Viewing Good white light Black light & dark ambience
Application Because of 2 convenient Not that good as black light and
& useful for spot examination dark are

GJ,IITM,Chennai
GJ,IITM,Chennai
GJ,IITM,Chennai
Choices of Penetrant Materials
Penetrant Type
I Fluorescent
II Visible

Method
A Water Washable
B Postemulsifiable Lipophilic
D Postemulsifiable - Hydrophilic
C Solvent Removable

Developer Form
Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble
Wet, Water Suspendable
Wet, Non-Aqueous(suspendible)
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