1

2
8-35 km crust
% by weight in crust

O = 49.2
Si = 25.7 82.4%
Al = 7.5
Fe = 4.7
Ca = 3.4
Na = 2.6
K = 2.4
Mg = 1.9
other = 2.6

12500 km dia

3
 Soil Formation

Parent Rock

Residual soil Transported soil

~ in situ weathering (by ~ weathered and
physical & chemical transported far away
agents) of parent rock
by wind, water and ice.
3
 Parent Rock

~ formed by one of these three different processes

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of formed by gradual

formed by alteration
molten magma (lava) deposition, and in layers
of igneous &
e.g., limestone, shale sedimentary rocks by
e.g., granite pressure/temperature

e.g., marble
 Residual Soils

Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock

5
 Transported Soils

Transported by: Special name:

wind Aeolian
sea (salt water) Marine
lake (fresh water) Lacustrine
river Alluvial
ice Glacial
6
8
Clay minerals are made of two distinct structural
units.
hydroxyl or
oxygen oxygen

aluminium or
silicon magnesium

0.26 nm
0.29 nm

Silicon tetrahedron Aluminium Octahedron

9
Several tetrahedrons joined together form a
tetrahedral sheet.

tetrahedron

hexagonal
hole

10
For simplicity, lets represent silica tetrahedral sheet
by:
Si

and alumina octahedral sheet

by:

Al

11
Different combinations of tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets form different clay minerals:
1:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., kaolinite, halloysite):

12
Different combinations of tetrahedral and
octahedral sheets form different clay minerals:
2:1 Clay Mineral (e.g., montmorillonite, illite)

13
 Al

Si
Typically 70-
100 layers Al
0.72 nm
Si

Al
joined by strong H-bond
no easy separation Si

Al joined by oxygen
sharing
Si
 used in paints, paper and in pottery and
pharmaceutical industries
(OH)8Al4Si4O10

Halloysite
kaolinite family; hydrated and tubular structure
(OH)8Al4Si4O10.4H2O

15
 also called smectite; expands on contact with
water Si

Al

Si

Si

Al 0.96 nm
easily separated Si
by water
Si
joined by weak
van der Waals bond Al

Si
16
A highly reactive (expansive) clay

(OH)4Al4Si8O20.nH2O swells on contact with water

Bentonite
high affinity to water

montmorillonite family
used as drilling mud, in slurry trench
walls, stopping leaks

17
 Si

Al

Si
joined by K+ ions

Si
fit into the hexagonal 0.96 nm
Al
holes in Si-sheet
Si

Si

Al
Si

18
Chlorite
A 2:1:1 (???) mineral.
Si Al Al or Mg

Vermiculite
montmorillonite family; 2 interlayers of water

Attapulgite
chain structure (no sheets); needle-like appearance
19
Plate-like or Flaky Shape

20
 edge-to-face contact
face-to-face contact

Flocculated Dispersed
21
 Electrochemical environment (i.e., pH, acidity, temperature,
cations present in the water) during the time of sedimentation
influence clay fabric significantly.

Clay particles tend to align perpendicular to the load applied on them.

22
23
 common technique to see clay particles
qualitative

plate-like
structure

24
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
toidentify the molecular structure and minerals
present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

to identify the minerals present

25
 Casagrandes PI-LL Chart

60
U-line
50
montmorillonite illite A-line
Plasticity Index

40

30
kaolinite
20
halloysite
10

0
chlorite
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit

25
27
 surface area per unit mass (m2/g)
smaller the grain, higher the specific surface
e.g., soil grain with specific gravity of 2.7

1 mm cube
10 mm cube

spec. surface = 222.2 mm2/g spec. surface = 2222.2 mm2/g

28
 substitution of Si4+ and Al3+ by other lower
valence (e.g., Mg2+) cations
results in charge imbalance (net negative)
positively charged edges
+ +
+ +_
+ _ _
_ _ negatively charged faces
+ _ _ _ _
_ _
+ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _

Clay Particle with Net negative Charge

29
 known as exchangeable cations

capacity to attract cations from the water (i.e., measure of the net
negative charge of the clay particle)

measured in meq/100g (net negative charge per 100 g of clay)

milliequivalents

The replacement power is greater for higher valence and larger

cations.
Al3+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ >> NH4+ > K+ > H+ > Na+ > Li+

30
Mineral Specific surface C.E.C
(m2/g) (meq/100g)
Kaolinite 10-20 3-10
Illite 80-100 20-30
Montmorillonite 800 80-120
Chlorite 80 20-30

31
 cation concentration drops with distance from clay particle
clay particle
+ +

+ + cations
+ + + - - + +
+
+ + + +
+ + + + - - + + + +
+ + + + - - + + + +
+ + + - - +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + - -
+ + - - + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+ - -
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ +

+ double layer + free water

32
A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin
1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
more viscous than free water

adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -

33
 adsorbed water

- - 1nm
- -
- - 50 nm
- - free water
- -
- -
- - double layer
water

34
35
 Clayparticles are like plates or needles. They are
negatively charged.

Clays are plastic; Silts, sands and gravels are non-

plastic.
Clays exhibit high dry strength and slow
dilatancy.

36
 Montmorillonites have very high specific
surface, cation exchange capacity, and affinity
to water. They form reactive clays.

Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit

(100+), plasticity index and activity (1-7).

Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is frequently used as drilling

mud.

37
39
 Air
Water

Solid

40
 Solid Particles

Volume

Voids (air or water)

41
Three Phase Diagram

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Idealization:

Three Phase Diagram

42
 Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Fully Saturated

43
 Air

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Dry Soil

44
Partly Saturated Soils

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Partly Saturated Soils

45
Partly Saturated Soils

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Partly Saturated Soils

46
 Weight Components:
Weight of Solids = Ws
Weight of Water = Ww
Weight of Air ~ 0

Ww
Water Content, w(%) 100%
Ws

47
 Volume Components:
Volume of Solids = Vs
Volume of Water = Vw
Volume of Air = Va
Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Vv
Void Ratio , e
Vs
Vv
Porosity , n(%) 100%
VT

48
 Voids Ratio, e
Voids ratio is defined as the ratio of volume of
voids to the volume of solids
Vv
Air Wa~0 Va e
Vv Vs
Water Ww Vw
Total
Weight, W V

Solid Ws Vs

Volumes 49
Weights
 Porosity, n
Porosity is defined as the ratio of volume of
voids to the total volume Vv
n (%) 100%
V
Wa~0 Va
Air
Vv

Water Ww Vw
Total
Weight, W V

Solid Ws Vs

Volumes 50
Weights
 Relationship between voids ratio & porosity

Vv
Vv Vv V n
e
Vs V Vv 1 Vv 1 n
V

51
 Relationship between porosity & voids

Vv
Vv Vv e VS
n
V VV Vs VV VS e 1

VS VS

52
 Volume Components:
Volume of Solids = Vs Volume of Water = Vw
Volume of Air = Va Volume of Voids = Va + Vw = Vv

Wa~0 Va
Air
Vv

Water Ww Vw
Total
Weight, W V

Solid Ws Vs

Volumes 53
Weights
 Degree of Saturation, S
Is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the
volume of voids
Vw
S (%) 100%
Wa~0 Va VV
Air
Vv

Water Ww Vw
Total
Weight, W V

Solid Ws Vs

Volumes 54
Weights
 Unit weight,
Is defined as the weight of soil per unit volume

W
Air Wa~0 Va
Vv

Water Ww Vw
V
Total
Weight, W V

Solid Ws Vs

Volumes 55
Weights
 The unit weight, also can be expressed in terms of the
weight of soil solids, the moisture content, and the total
volume

Ww
Ws 1
W Ws Ww Ws Ws 1 w

V V V V

56
 The dry unit weight, d is the weight per unit volume of soil
excluding water

Ws
d
V

57
 Relationship between unit weight, and dry unit weight, d
can be expressed as follows:

Ww
Ws 1
W Ws Ww W s Ws 1 w

V V V V

Ws 1 w

V

Ws
d
1 w V 1 w
58
Unit weight of water, w

w = 1 t/m3
w = 9.80 kN/m3
w = 62.4 lb/ft3

59
 Weight of a Subs tan ce
Specific Gravity
Weight of an Equal Volume of Water

Unit Weight of a Subs tan ce

Specific Gravity
Unit Weight of Water
Unit weight of Water, w
w = 1.0 g/cm3 (strictly accurate at 4 C)
w = 62.4 pcf
w = 9.81 kN/m3

60
 Iron 7.86
Aluminum 2.55-2.80
Lead 11.34
Mercury 13.55

Granite 2.69
Marble 2.69
Quartz 2.60
Feldspar 2.54-2.62

61
62
 Ws = Gs.w
Air Wa~0 Va Ww = w.Gs.w
Vv = e Vw = w.Gs
Ww Vw
Vs = 1
Water Total Vv = e
V = 1+ e
Weight, W V = 1+e

Solid Ws Vs = 1

Weights Volumes

V V 1 e 1 e
s
W W Ww Gs . w w.Gs . w Gs . w 1 w
63
 W Ws Ww Gs . w w.Gs . w Gs . w 1 w

V V 1 e 1 e

Ws Gs . w
d
V 1 e
Gs . w
e 1
d
64
 Determine void ratio, porosity
and degree of saturation of a
soil core sample
Data:
Weight of soil sample = 1013g
Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm3
Specific Gravity, Gs = 2.65
Dry weight of soil = 904.0g

65
 134.9cm3 Wa~0
Air
W =1.00
243.9cm3
Water 109.0g
109.0cm3
585.0cm3 1013.0g
s =2.65
341.1cm3 Solid 904.0g

Volumes Weights

66
 Vv 243.9
e 0.72
134.9cm3 Air Vs 341.1
Vv 243.9
W =1.00 n(%) 100% 100 41.7%
243.9cm3 VT 585.0
109.0cm3 Water Vw 109.0
585.0cm3 S (%) 100% 100 44.7%
Vv 243.9
s =2.65
341.1cm3 Solid

Volumes

67
 Bulk (or Total) Unit weight
= WT / VT
Dry unit weight
d = Ws / VT
Buoyant (submerged) unit weight
b = - w

68
69
 TWO KINDS of Soil...

Two kinds of soil in this

world
COARSE
FINE

Basis for division is...

Fine-Grained vs.
Coarse-Grained Soils
U.S. Standard
Sieve - No. 200
0.0029 inches
0.074 mm

No. 200
means...
 This procedure is
suitable for coarse
grained soils
e.g. No.10 sieve .
has 10 apertures per
linear inch
 Also called
Sedimentation
Analysis
Stokes Law

D 2 w (Gs GL )
v
18
 Further classification within fine-grained soils (i.e.
soil that passes #200 sieve) is done based on soil
plasticity.
Albert Atterberg, Swedish Soil Scientist (1846-
1916)..series of tests for evaluating soil plasticity
Arthur Casagrande adopted these tests for
geotechnical engineering purposes
 Atterberg Limits
Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in
proportion to the water content

liquid (pea soup)

Liquid limit
Plasticity
Index plastic (pea nut butter)

Plastic limit
semi-solid (cheese)
Shrinkage limit
solid (hard candy)
 Empirical Definition
The moisture content at which a 2 mm-
wide groove in a soil pat will close for a
distance of 0.5 in when dropped 25 times
in a standard brass cup falling 1 cm each
time at a rate of 2 drops/sec in a standard
liquid limit device
Soil Properties that Control its Engineering Behavior
Particle Size

coarse-grained fine-grained

Particle/Grain Size Soil Plasticity

Distribution
Particle Shape
 Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)
Shows that clay
particles consist of
stacks of plate-like
layers
 Albert Atterberg (1846-
1916) Swedish Soil Scientist
.. Developed series of tests for
evaluating consistency limits of
soil (1911)

Arthur Casagrande (1902-

1981)
Adopted these tests for
geotechnical engineering
purposes
 Arthur Casagrande (1902-1981)

Joined Karl Terzaghi at MIT in

1926 as his graduate student
Research project funded by
Bureau of Public Roads
After completion of Ph.D at MIT
Casagrande initiated
Geotechnical Engineering
Program at Harvard
Soil Plasticity and Soil
Classification (1932)
 The moisture content at which a thread of soil
just begins to crack and crumble when rolled to
a diameter of 1/8 inches
 PI = LL PL
or IP=wL-wP
Note: These are water contents, but the
percentage sign is not typically shown.
Duration: 7 min. 20 s

93
 To develop a systematic way to describe
and classify soils;

To group soils of similar geotechnical

characteristics; and

To assign symbols.

94
Cohesive Granular soils or
soils Cohesionless soils

Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder

0.002 0.075 2.36 63 200

Grain size (mm)

Fine grain Coarse grain

soils soils

95
Significance of GSD:
To know the relative proportions of different
grain sizes.

An important factor influencing the

geotechnical characteristics of a coarse grain
soil.

Not important in fine grain soils.

96
 Determination of GSD:
In coarse grain soils ... By sieve analysis
In fine grain soils ... By hydrometer analysis

hydrometer

stack of sieves

sieve shaker

soil/water suspension

Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis 97

 100

80
% Passing hydrometer sieve

60
fines sands gravels

40

D10 = 0.013 mm
20
D
30
D30 = 0.47 mm
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Grain size (mm)

can find % of gravels, sands, fines

define D10, D30, D60.. as above.
Well Graded Soils Poorly Graded Soils

Wide range of grain sizes present Others, including two special cases:
(a) Uniform soils grains of same size
Gravels: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >4
(b) Gap graded soils no grains in a
Sands: Cc = 1-3 & Cu >6
specific size range

99
Measure of how densely the grains are
packed in a coarse grain soil in %.
0 100

Loosest Densest

emax e
Dr
emax emin

Also known as density index (ID).

100
As per AS1726 - 1993
Relative Density (%) Consistency Term

0-15 Very loose

15-35 Loose

35-65 Medium dense

65-85 Dense

85-100 Very dense

101
 Border line water contents, separating the
different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

brittle- semi- plastic liquid

solid solid

102
Liquid Limit (wL or LL):
Clay flows like liquid when w > LL

Plastic Limit (wP or PL):

Lowest water content where the clay is still plastic

Shrinkage Limit (wS or SL):

At w<SL, no volume reduction on drying
103
 Range of water content over which the soil
remains plastic

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

plastic 104
Purely based on LL and PI
Intermediate plasticity

60 Low High
plasticity plasticity
Plasticity Index

40
Clays

20 Silts

0
0 20 35 50 100

Liquid 105
Limit
 coarse grain soils fine grain soils
% of fines
0 5 12
XY
50 YB 100

e.g., SM e.g., CH

XA
XA-XY
e.g., GP
e.g., GP-GC

X: Coarse Y: Fines A: Gradation B: Plasticity

G = Gravel M = Silts W = well graded H = LL > 50
S = Sands C = Clays P = poorly graded I = 35 < LL < 50
L = LL < 35

106
 Sieve analysis for coarse grain soils
Hydrometer analysis - for fine grain soils

Classify coarse by GSD and

fines from Atterberg limits (PI-LL chart)

.
107
108
 In general soils
contain a wide range
of particle sizes
Some means of
describing the
characteristics of soils
with different
proportions of
sand/silt/clay is
required.
110
111
112
113
114
115
Groundwater

Zw

u = porewater pressure = wZw

118
Stresses in Soil Masses

X X
Area = A

= P/A
Soil Unit
Assume the soil is fully saturated, all voids are
filled with water.
 Effective Stress

From the standpoint of the soil skeleton, the water

carries some of the load. This has the effect of
lowering the stress level for the soil.
Therefore, we may define
effective stress = total stress minus pore pressure

= - u where, = effective stress

= total stress
u = pore pressure
Effective Stress

= - u
The effective stress is the force carried by the
soil skeleton divided by the total area of the
surface.
The effective stress controls certain aspects of
soil behavior, notably, compression & strength.
Effective Stress Calculations

z = iHi - u
where,
H = layer thickness
sat = saturated unit weight
U = pore pressure = w Zw

When you encounter a groundwater table, you must

use effective stress principles; i.e., subtract the
pore pressure from the total stress.
 Generated by the mass in the soil body,
calculated by sum up the unit weight of all
the material (soil solids + water) multiflied
by soil thickness or depth.
Denoted as , v, Po
The unit weight of soil is in natural condition
and the water influence is ignored.

t . z
z = The depth of point
 1m
t,1 = 17 kN/m3 A = t,1 x 1 m
3m A d,1 = 13 kN/m3 = 17 kN/m2

B B = t,1 x 3 m

t,2 = 18 kN/m3 = 51 kN/m2

4m
d,2 = 14 kN/m3

C = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
C
= 123 kN/m2
2m
t,3 = 18 kN/m3
4m
D d,3 = 15 kN/m3 D = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
+ t,3 x 2 m
= 159 kN/m2
 Defined as soil stress which influenced by
water pressure in soil body.
Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base
on the experimental result
Applied to saturated soil and has a
relationship with two type of stress i.e.:
Total Normal Stress ()
Pore Water Pressure (u)
Effective stress formula

' u
' u u w .z
t .z

' ( t w ).z '.z

 h1 = 2 m Sand
MAT t = 18.0 kN/m3
d = 13.1 kN/m3
h2 = 2.5 m

Clay
h3 = 4.5 m
t = 19.80 kN/m3
x
 Total Stress
= d,1 . h1 + t,1 . h2 + t,2 . h3
= 13.1 . 2 + 18 . 2.5 + 19.8 . 4.5
= 160.3 kN/m2
Pore Water Pressure
u = w . (h2+h3)
u = 10 . 7
= 70 kN/m2
Effective Stress
= - u = 90.3 kN/m2
= d,1 . h1 + (t,2 - w) . h2 + (t,2 - w) . h3
= 13.1 . 2 + (18-10) . 2.5 + (19,8-10) . 4.5
= 90.3 kN/m2
Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress ()

26.2 kPa 26.2 kPa

-2.0

71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

-4.5

160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

-9.0

Profile of Vertical Stress

130