Learning Objectives

At the end of LN 2, you should be able to:

Understand role of snubber network

Appreciate the operation of snubber to switching
transition
Understand Pulse Width Modulation and its applications
for switching operation

1
Part A: Overview of Snubber Circuits for Hard-Switched
Converters
Function: Protect semiconductor devices by: Types of Snubber Circuits

Limiting device voltages during turn-off

1. Unpolarized series R-C snubbers
transients
Used to protect diodes and thyristors
Limiting device currents during turn-on
transients
2. Polarized R-C snubbers
Used as turn-off snubbers to shape the
turn-on switching trajectory of controlled
Limiting the rate-of-rise (di/dt) of currents
switches.
through the semiconductor device at device turn-
Used as overvoltage snubbers to clamp
on
voltages applied to controlled switches to safe
values.
Limit dv/dt during device turn-off
Limiting the rate-of-rise (dv/dt) of voltages
across the semiconductor device at device turn-off
3. Polarized L-R snubbers
Used as turn-on snubbers to shape the
Shaping the switching trajectory of the device
turn-off switching trajectory of controlled
as it turns on/off
switches.
Limit di/dt during device turn-on
 Need for Diode Snubber Circuit
d i Df Vd
=
d t L
Io
+ L t
Rs i (t)
Df
Io I rr

Vd Df Cs

t
- Sw v (t)
Df Vd

Diode voltage
di L
L = stray inductance without snubber L
d t
Sw closes at t = 0
Rs - Cs = snubber circuit

diL
Diode breakdown i f V d + L > BV BD
dt
 Need for Snubbers with Controlled Switches
Step-down converter

L1
L 2
I o L1 , L , L = stray inductances
2 3

V
d
i L = L1 + L + L
sw + 2 3
Sw vsw
L 3 -

Switching trajectory of switch

idealized
i sw s witching
t t 5 loci
6

t o turn-off
Overvoltage at turn-off
t1 due to stray inductance
turn-on
Overcurrent at turn-on due to
diode reverse recovery
t
4 t3 vsw
Vd
 Overvoltage Snubber

Swit ch Sw wavefor ms w it hout overvolta ge snubb er

Step-down converter with t f i = s wit ch cur rent fall t ime ; kV d = overvo lta ge o n Sw
overvoltage snubber comprised
of Dov, Cov, and Rov. diLIo
kV d = L = L
dt t fi
Overvoltage snubber limits
overvoltage (due to stray I kV d t f i
nductance) across Sw as it L =
turns off. Io
 Turn-on Snubber Recovery at Switch Turn-off

Io R
I o RLs exp(-R Ls t/L s ) Ls

is
w V
Io d

vs
t rv
w

Switch waveforms at turn-off with turn-on snubber in circuit.

Assume switch current fall time Overvoltage smaller if tfi smaller.

tri = 0.
Time of 2.3 L s/RLs required for inductor current to decay to 0.1 I o
Inductor current must discharge
thru DLs- RLs series segment. Off-time of switch must be > 2.3 Ls/RLs
 Part B: Pulse Width Modulation
Figure 9.27 shows the simplified block diagram representation for a single-
phase switching mode inverter.
The output vo (t )shows different types of possible output waveforms that can
be produced depending on the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control
technique employed.

Fig 9.27 Simplified block diagram of single-phase switching-mode inverter.

 Pulse Width Modulation
Since varying the width of these pulses within the half-cycle carries out the
control, the process is appropriately known as Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM). The PWM method may be grouped into classes:
The PWM method may be grouped into classes:

1) Non-sinusoidal PWM in which all pulses have the same width and are
normally modulated equally to control the output voltage as shown in
Fig. 9.28. The widths of these pulses are adjusted equally to control the
output voltage.

Fig 9.28 Typical waveform for equal-pulse PWM technique.

 Sinusoidal PWM

2) Sinusoidal Pulse-Width-Modulation that allows the pulse width to be modulated

sinusoidaly, i.e. the width of each pulse is proportional to the instantaneous value
of a reference sinusoid whose frequency equals the fundamentals as shown in
Fig. 9.29.

Fig 9.29 Typical waveforms for sinusoidal PWM technique.

 PWM Definition
Reference voltage vref . (t ) is square and sinusoidal waveforms for the equal pulse
and sinusoidal PWM. It is important that first we define some terms
vtri. t :
Repetitive triangular waveform (also known as a carrier signal).
V P ,tri. :The peak value of the triangular waveform.
TS , f S : The period and the frequency of the triangular waveform (also known
as a carrier or switching frequency).
v ref . : Reference signal that can be either a square or a sinusoidal
waveform (also known as a control signal).
VP ,ref . :The peak value of the reference signal.
To , f o : The desired inverter output period and output frequency, which are
equal to the period and frequency of the reference or control signal.
ma : Inverter amplitude modulation index.
mf : Inverter frequency modulation index.
k: Number of pulses per half cycle.

The amplitude and frequency modulation indices are defined as follows:

V P , ref .
ma (9.55)
V P ,tri.

mf
fs (9.56)
fo
 Equal Pulse (Uniform) PWM
The Equal Pulse PWM technique, known also as a single pulse PWM control.
Generating the equal and multiple pulses is achieved by comparing a square wave
reference voltage waveform v ref (t ) to a triangular control (carrier) voltage waveform vcont. (t )

(a) (b)

Fig 9.30 Examples of equal pulses. (a) One-pulse output. (b) Two-pulse output.
 Part C: Sinusoidal PWM
Basic concept:
Recall that in PWM dc-dc converters the duty cycle is modulated between 0 and
1 in order to regulate the dc output voltage. In the steady state, the duty cycle
in PWM switch mode converters is relatively constant and does not vary with
time:
Vo DVdc (9.76)
whereD is the duty cycle representing the ratio between the on-time of the
switch to the switching period, and Vo is the average output voltage.

Fig 9.35 Simplified buck converter.

 Basic PWM Concept
If the duty cycle, d (t ) , varies or is modulated according to a certain time function,
with a modulating frequency, f o , then it is possible to shape the output voltage
waveform, vo , in such a way that its average value over the modulating period
synthesizes a sinusoidal waveform.If the duty cycle is defined according to the
following function, d (t ) Ddc Dmax sin o t
(9.77)
where,
Ddc : dc duty cycle when no modulation exists.
Dmax : maximum modulation constant.
o : frequency of modulation.
the output voltage , vo , is given by,
vo d (t )Vdc
Vdc Ddc Vdc M max sin ot Dmax Ddc (9.78)
For a buck converter, since the output voltage cannot be negative, then
as shown in Fig. 9.36.

Fig 9.36 Example of

Ddc = 0.5, Dmax =
0.8Ddc, and fo = fs/12.
 Switching Schemes
Depending on the switching sequence, the output voltage in PWM inverters can
be either bi-polar or unipolar. Fig. 9.37 shows a bi-polar output voltage in a PWM
inverter. When the reference sinusoidal signal is larger or smaller than the
triangular wave, the output equals, Vdc or Vdc .

In the bipolar voltage switching, m f is an odd number with the same

switching frequency, f S .The output frequency, f o ,in the unipolar voltage
switching, is twice that of the frequency in the bipolar voltage switching ( m f
is doubled).

Fig 9.37 Example of a bipolar PWM output waveform.

 Unipolar Output Waveform

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig 9.38 Unipolar PWM output. (a) A positive sinusoidal reference to produce vo1 (b)
Positive sinusoidal reference to produce vo2. (c) The differential output vo = vo1 vo2.
 Signal Generation
Advanced digital and analog techniques exist in todays inverters to generate the
driving signals that produce a sinusoidal PWM. Fig. 9.39 shows a comparator that
compares a triangular signal to a sinusoidal reference signal.

Fig 9.39 Simplified circuit showing how signals are generated in sinusoidal PWM
inverters.