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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

A digital signal is superior to an


analog signal. The tendency today is to
change an analog signal to digital data.
Components for PCM method
Three different sampling methods for PCM
Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the


sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
Example

For an example of the Nyquist theorem, let us sample a


simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2 times
the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.

It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create


a good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce
a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f,
where f is the maximum frequency in the signal.
Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the
highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is
therefore 400,000 samples per second.
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
Example

We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,


assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0
to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are
calculated as follows:
Components of a PCM decoder
The process of delta modulation
Delta modulation components

4.13
Delta demodulation components
Digital Specifications
The relationship between analog
signals and their digital
equivalent is important to the
overall performances of a system.

4.15
Factors that determine the
relationship between an analog
and its corresponding digital value

1. Accuracy
2. Resolution

4.16
Accuracy

Accuracy is how perfect and correct


the digital equivalent of the original
analog value being compared to other
BETTER standard.
Ex. temp from 100 C to 105 C
resistance from 10 K to 10.3 K

4.17
Resolution

Resolution shows how fine the


gradations of the digital value are, or
into how many distinct values the
overall signal span has been divided.

Ex. Digital Camera pixel value


Analog to Digital Conversion Specifications

4.18
Quantization
Is the process of converting the
sampled signal to a binary value
Each voltage level will

correspond to a different binary


number
v
1.0



0 t
0 to 1 V- analog signal

4.20
v
111
110
1.0
101
100
011
010
001
000 0 t
0 to 1 V- analog signal
The same signal with a resolution of 1 in 8 parts
(three bits)

4.21
v
11 1.0
10
01

00
0 t
0 to 1 V- analog signal
The same signal with a resolution of 1 in 4 parts
(two bits)

4.22
Pulse Code Modulation
The size of each division or magnitude of the
minimum step is called the STEP SIZE
Quantization Error (Quantization Noise)
- is used to describe that a digital value
corresponds to a distinct span of analog
signals.
To reduce the quantization error, more
divisions (higher resolution)are used to
represent the analog value.

4.24
Dynamic Range
This is the ratio of the largest to smallest
analogue signal that can be transmitted .

Vmax
DR
Vmin
But Vmin is the resolution and can be written as
Vmax
q Vmin n
2
It follows that
Vmax
DR 2n
Vmin
If this is expressed in decibels
Vmax
DR(dB) 20 log 20 log 2n 20n log 2 6.02n
Vmin

DR(dB) 6n
From DR 2 n

It can be observed that the DR is the


Maximum binary number for a system. With one code
used for 0V which is not considered in calculating DR, it is
observed that
DR 2 1 n

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