Lecture on

Basic Concept, Operation and

Control of HVDC
September 2, 2008
09.00-16.00 hrs. EGAT Head Office

Lectured by
Nitus Voraphonpiput, Ph.D.
Engineer Level 8
Technical Analysis Foreign Power purchase Agreement Branch
Power Purchase Agreement Division
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand
Objective
Providing basic concept of the HVDC
transmission system to attendee.

Introducing operation and control of

the HVDC transmission System.

Discussing applications of the HVDC

and its limitations.

2
Contents

1. HVAC vs. HVDC

2. HVDC Principle
Q&A for 15 minutes
Coffee break 10 minutes

3. Control of DC Transmission
Q&A for 15 minutes

3
 1. HVAC vs. HVDC

Why use DC transmission?

This question is often asked. One response

is that losses are lower, but is it true?
Reference [2] has been explained using Insulation
ratio and Power capacity in order to proof this
statement.

4
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

Insulation ratio of HVAC and HVDC (Ref. 1-2)

A given insulation length for an overhead line, the ratio of
continuous working withstand voltage factor (k) is expressed as,
(note )
1 k 2

DC withstand voltage
k 1.0
AC withstand voltage (rms)

A line has to be insulated for over-voltages

expected during faults, switching operations, etc.
Normally AC transmission line is insulated against over-
voltages of more than 4 times the normal effective
(rms) voltage.
5
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

This insulation requirement can be met by insulation

corresponding to an AC voltage of 2.5-3.0 times the
normal rated voltage.
AC Insulation level
k1 2.5
Rated AC Voltage (rms) (phase - ground)

For suitable converter control the corresponding

HVDC transmission ratio is expressed as

DC Insulation level
k2 1.7
Rated DC Voltage (pole - ground)
6
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

Insulation ratio for a DC pole-ground voltage (Vd) and AC

phase-ground (Vp) is expressed as
insulation length required for each AC phase
insulation ratio ( K )
insulation length required for each DC Pole
AC insulation level
AC withstand voltage (rms) k1 VP
k
DC insulation level k 2 Vd
DC withstand voltage

It can be seen that the actual ratio of insulation levels is a

function of AC/DC voltage. Next, determine AC/DC
voltage. 7
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

Determine AC/DC voltage

Assumed resistances (R) of the lines are equal in both

cases (HVDC and HVAC).
AC Loss = 3 x R x IL2 and DC Loss = 2 x R x Id2

Let losses in both cases are equal, so that, I d 3 I L

2

The power of a HVAC system and a bipolar HVDC

system are as:
AC Power 3VP I L cos DC Power 2Vd I d
8
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

At the same power transfer,

AC Power 3VP I L cos 3 VP cos
1
DC Power 2Vd I d 2 Vd
2 1
Vp Vd
So that, 3 cos

Thus, insulation ratio (K) can be written as

k1 2 1 1.2
K k
k2 3 cos cos
It can be seen that HVDC requires insulation ratio at least
20% less that the HVAC which essentially reflects the cost.
9
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

Power Capacity
Compared a double circuit HVAC line (6 lines) and
double circuit DC line of Bipolar HVDC.

Power transmitted by HVAC (Pac) and HVDC (Pdc) are

Pac 6VP I L cos Pdc 6Vd I d

On the basic of equal current and insulation, Id = IL, K=1:

k1 k1 Pac 1.47
Pdc 6 k VP I L k Pac
k2 k2 cos cos
10
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

For the same values of k, k1 and k2 as above and pf is

assumed to 1.0, the power transmitted by overhead
lines can be increased to 147%. The percentage line
losses, which is inversion of the power transmit, are
reduced to 68%.

In addition, for underground or submarine cables,

power transmitted by HVAC cable can be increase
294 % and line loss reduced to 34%.
Note: for cable k equals at least two.

11
1. HVAC vs. HVDC

From reference [3], losses are lower is not correct.

The level of losses is designed into a transmission system and is
regulated by the size of conductor selected. DC and AC conductors,
either as overhead transmission lines or submarine cables can have
lower losses but at higher expense since the larger cross-sectional
area will generally result in lower losses but cost more.

The reasons that HVDC have been used are:

1. An overhead d.c. transmission line with its towers can be
designed to be less costly per unit of length.
2. It is not practical to consider AC cable systems exceeding 50 km
(due to VAR charging of the cable).
3. Some a.c. electric power systems are not synchronized to
neighboring networks even though their physical distances between
them is quite small.

12
 2. HVDC Principle

The HVDC valve comprises the thyristors acting as

controlled switch. In the OFF state, the thyristor blocks
the current to flow, as long as the reverse or forward
breakdown voltages is not exceeded.
It changes to ON state if it is forward biased (VAK > 0)
and has small positive Gate voltage applied between the
Gate and the Cathode.

Anode (A)
Gate (G)

Cathode (K)

13
 2. HVDC Principle

Thyristor switches between conducting

state (ON) and non-conducting (OFF)
state in response to control signal
(firing) as its characteristic.
The Gate voltage need not to be present
when the thyristor is already in ON
state.

14
 2. HVDC Principle

Anode (A)
Rd = VAK/ IA

iA Rd

VT

Cathode (K)
Anode (A)

Rr ir
Rr = VAK/ IA VT
Ploss-ON state = VT.IA(avg.) + Rd.IA2(rms)
Cathode (K)
Ploss-OFF state = Rr.Ir2(rms)

15
2. HVDC Principle

ON-OFF state
- ON state continues until current drops to zero, even reverse bias
appears across the thyristor.
- The critical time to clear charge carriers in the semi-conductor
is referred as the turn-off time toff . If forward bias appears to
soon, t < toff, thyristor can not OFF.

VAK > 0 and VG >0

VAK > 0 and t < toff ON

OFF
IA < 0

t > toff OFF

16
2. HVDC Principle

ON State OFF State

17
2. HVDC Principle

Single Phase Bridge Rectifier Id

Th1 Th3

Is Ld
Vs Vd
Rd =
10

Th4 Th
2
U S 220 V 30

18
2. HVDC Principle

Vs
Is

Voltage waveform of inductor

= 30 (Ld), VLd = Vd Rd Id

Vd
Voltage waveform of resistor (Rd), VRd = Rd Id
Th3 Th1 Th3
Th4 Th2 Th4

Id

19
2. HVDC Principle

Harmonics in the voltage and current waveform.

Is
150 Hz
250 Hz
350 Hz

DC 100 Hz

Vd
200 Hz
300 Hz

DC

Id
100 Hz

50 Hz
20
2. HVDC Principle

Even DC side does not have reactive power (Q), the reactive
power still presents on the AC side. The reactive power
occurrence is caused by the delay angle () (or called firing
angle) of the current waveform.
P = |VS| |IS| cos
Q = |VS| |IS| sin
Vs Is VS
30
360 time
IS
20 ms
Phasor of fundamental
component
= 30
21
2. HVDC Principle

50 Hz
Product of phasor VS and
Is phasor IS is not the apparent
150 Hz
250 Hz power (S) . It represents the
350 Hz
active power (P) and reactive
power (Q).
100 Hz
There are harmonic distortion
Vd power, which is a new term
200 Hz
300 Hz caused by the higher
harmonics (more than 50 Hz). It
is represented by D (distortion
Product of Vd and Id power).
Id is (active) power (P). Finally, S2 = P2 + Q2 becames
100 Hz S2 = P2 + Q2 + D2.

22
 2. HVDC Principle

The inductance Lk represents

Ith1
Id reactance on AC side (called
Lk commutating reactance). Due to
nature of an inductor, The
Ld inductor current can not change
Vs Is Vd suddenly. Thus, during turn-off
of the Th1 (and Th2) and turn-on
Rd of the Th3 (and Th4), both are in
conducting state for a short time
Ith2 (overlap time). This phenomena
occurs during commutation of
the thyristors.
Increasing Id It can be seen that if current is
Ith2 high, overlap angel is increased.
commutation In addition, if inductance is high,
Ith1 overlap angle is also increased.

is overlap angle Increasing Lk 23
2. HVDC Principle

Inductor current can not suddenly be

Is changed, thus there is a slope.

Vs
= 30 cos cos( )
cos
2

Vd

Th3 Th1 Th3

Th4 Th2 Th4

Id

24
 2. HVDC Principle

The impact of the overlap angle () is the reduction of the

average dc voltage (Vd).
It decreases the harmonic content of the ac current (Is) and
power factor of the AC side.
Vd
Vd Vd VT
Ideal case Vdo
DR Rd
Id
2
Vd Vdo X K Id
XK
DX
X K 2 f LK
Id Id
Voltage drop due to Overall voltage drop
commutating reactance VT and DR are very less compared to
is represented as DX DX. Thus, there are usually neglected. 25
 2. HVDC Principle

Natural
3-pulse converter commutation
Ld
Vd
VA Rd
Th1
IL
VB IL
Th2
t
VC Th3 Ld
Vd

Rd

0 60 90 120
VA = 2 VP sin t
VB = 2 VP sin t-120
Vd 1.17VP cos Vd 0 cos
VC = 2 VP sin t+120 26
2. HVDC Principle

Vd
Vd
Vd 0 cos
Vd 0 Rectifier mode can be
1.0 performed when firing
Positive Rectifier angle is less than 90
average degrees.
60
voltage 0.5
Average voltage is zero
when the firing angle is
90 degrees.
45 90 135 180

Negative -0.5 Inverter mode can be
average performed when firing
voltage Inverter
angle is more than 90
degrees.
-1.0

27
 2. HVDC Principle

Vd

=60 =30

Id

28
2. HVDC Principle

VA, IA
120

VB, IB

VC, IC
Th1 Th2 Th3 Th1 Th2 Th3

Id

29
2. HVDC Principle

Reversing phase sequence

VA, IA
=120
=30

Positive voltage
Vd
Negative voltage

Inverter mode can be performed as

long as the DC current continues flow.
Id

30
 2. HVDC Principle

VA
Lk Vd DX
Vk

VB
Lk

Id
t

VA

Vk IA IB
IC IA IB IC
t
Vd Vd 0 cos DX
3
DX Lk I d
VB
2 31
 2. HVDC Principle

The commutating Vd DX
reactance (Xk) results in
decreasing of DC
Vk
voltage, but it increases
DC voltage in inverter
mode. t
It can also be seen that

the overlap time will
increase when DC 180 180
current is high and this

can cause commutation
failure in inverter mode. IA IB IA IB

Vd Vd 0 cos DX
Note: + < 180 3
The extinction angle () = 180 - - DX Lk I d
2 32
 2. HVDC Principle

Vd+
6-pulse converter

=0

Vd= Vd+ - Vd-

Vd+

Vd
Vd+ -Vd-
Vd-
Vd-

=0

The 6-pulse bridge consists of two 3-pulse bridges

(positive and negative) connected in parallel.
33
 2. HVDC Principle

6-pulse bridge HVDC

Smoothing DC line Smoothing
reactor reactor

power Id power

Vdr power Vdi

Reactive
Id Reactive
power power
DC line

The HVDC comprises two converters connected in anti-parallel through

smoothing reactors and DC lines. One converter is operated in rectifier mode
to transmit power from the AC network to the other side whereas the other
side converter is operated in inverter mode to receive power into the (other
side) AC network.
34
2. HVDC Principle

Rectifier Operation of the 6-pulse bridge

converter
Assume = 15 and = 25
cos cos( )
cos
2
cos15 cos(15 25 )
0.866
2
30
I.cos
V
30
I.sin
I
The converter operates in rectifier
mode. It transmits active power
while consumes reactive power.
35
 2. HVDC Principle

Inverter operation of the 6-pulse bridge

converter
Assume = 135 and = 25
cos cos( )
cos
2
cos135 cos(135 25 )
0.823
2
145
I.cos V
145

I
I.sin
The converter operates in inverter
mode. It receives active power while
consumes reactive power.
36
2. HVDC Principle

For convenience, the converter operated in inverter

mode is often referred to extinction angle (). Thus
direct voltage in inverter mode (Vdi) are expressed as
Vd Vd 0 cos DX , 90 Vd Vd 0 cos DX
3
DX Lk I d
2

Actually, inverter is commonly controlled at constant extinction

angle to prevent commutation failure. Therefore, it is not only
for convenience, but also for converter control purpose. It is
important to note that voltage drop caused by commutating
reactance (Dx) is now negative.
37
 2. HVDC Principle

Voltage vs. current (VI) characteristics at steady state

Vd Vd
Vd 0 Slope is DX Vd 0
1. = 0
1. = 0
0 0
Increasing

Increasing
Rectifier Rectifier

Id is the control
variable for rectifier Id
1. I dN and is the control 1. I dN

Increasing
variable for inverter.
0 0
Inverter Inverter

= 0
- max < 180 -
1. 1. 38
 2. HVDC Principle

12-pulse bridge HVDC

Id
Y Vdr Vdi Y

Y Y VdrY VdiY Y Y
Id

The 12-pulse converter is required to improve harmonic current on AC sides.

It comprises two 6-pulse converters connected in series. Harmonic current
on AC sides are odd orders starting from 11th, 13th . whereas even orders
present on the DC side (12th, 14th). To achieve 12-pulse, phase
displacement of 30 generated by Star (Y) and Delta () connection of the
transformers are employed. 39
2. HVDC Principle

Rectifier operation of the

Vd VdY Vd 12-pulse bridge converter
Assume = 15

and = 25
IAY
IA

Y Vd
IA Vd
IA IA Y Y VdY
IAY

40
 2. HVDC Principle

Rd
power power

Y Id Y
power Vdr Vdi
Y Y Y Y
Rd
Reactive power Reactive power
min < voltage min <
decreasing
min = 5 - 7 min = 15 - 17
Vdr
To ensure all To keep reactive
thyristor valves are Vdi power requirement
enough forward bias on inverter side as
to turn on. low as possible.
Id current

Voltage drop caused by line resistance (Rd) is taken into account

and the VI characteristic presents operating point of the HVDC system.
41
2. HVDC Principle

Detail Configuration of the HVDC

42
2. HVDC Principle

Alternatives for the implementation of a HVDC power

transmission system

a) Earth Return
ii) Bipolar Configuration

b) Metallic Return

i) Mono-polar Configuration
iii) Homo-polar Configuration 43
2. HVDC Principle

Alternatives for the implementation of a HVDC power

transmission system (continued)

44
 3. Control of
the DC Transmission

Can we use manual control for the

rectifier (vary ) and the inverter (vary
)?
If we can not do that, which side should
be controlled (rectifier or inverter) or
control them both?
What is/are the control purpose(s)?

45
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Typical control strategies used in a HVDC system

consists of:
Firing Control
{Rectifier} Current Control (CC)
{Inverter} Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control
{Inverter} Current Margin Control (CM)
{Inverter} Voltage Control (VC)
Voltage Dependent Current Limit (VDCL)
Tap change Controls (TCC)
Power Reversal

46
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

Firing Control
Function of the firing control is to convert the firing angle
order (*) demanded fed into the valve group control system.
There might be voltage distortions due to non-characteristic
harmonics, faults and other transient disturbances such as
frequency variation. Thus, phase-locked loop (PLL) based firing
system is generally applied.
PI Controller vo Voltage comparator
vA verror (1 Ts ) Controlled
vB Phase K Oscillator
Detector Ts comparator

vC

uA

sin(.) comparator
uB -
sin(.)
uC Gate firing
sin(.) *
47
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Firing Control (Continued)

uA
vA

0
time

verror

0
time
2
*
0
time
Firing pulse of phase A
48
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Current Control (CC)

The firing angle is controlled with a feedback control
system as shown in figure. The dc voltage of the converter
increases (by decrease *) or decreases (by increase *) to adjust the
dc current to its set-point (Id*).
(1 Ts )
K Id
Ts
Y

Vdr
vA, vB , vC Y Y

max
id* - * Firing 6
PI Control
6
+ min
Current
measurement
id
49
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Constant Extinction Angle Control (CEA)

The firing angle of the inverter is controlled at minimum
angle (min) to reduce reactive power requirement. This can be
achieved by using Gamma control (-control).
Current
measurement

Y
Vdi
Y Y

vA, vB , vC
max
Valve voltage 6 * *
Firing -
Control PI
6
+
min

measurement
50
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

VI Characteristic of the CC and the CEA

voltage voltage

Vdr

X Vdi Vdi
*
Vdr
* = min =min * = min

AC voltage
decreasing

Id current Id current

VI Characteristic If AC voltage on rectifier side

decreases, CC decreases * down to
The intersection (X) is the operating
min to increase DC current (Id), but
point of the DC transmission line.
there is no operating point (X). This
problem can be solved using CMC.
51
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Current Margin Control (CMC)

A better way is to use the inverter to control current less
than of the rectifier by an amount of current margin (Id) when the
rectifier can not perform CC.

*
Y - Control
Vdi
Y Y
id = 0.1 to 0.15

Minimum
selection
vA, vB , vC
max
* + id*
Firing
Control PI -
6
Current
min +
measurement
id
52
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

VI Characteristic of CC, CEA and CMC

voltage voltage

Vdr CEA

X Vdi Vdi
* Vdr
* = min =min X * = min
Id
CMC
CC AC voltage Id
decreasing

Id current Id current

Combined characteristics If AC voltage on rectifier side

of CC, CEA and CMC decreases, CC decreases * down to
This method can maintain stable min to increase DC current (Id), but
operation when AC voltage of both there is no operating point (X). This
sides are fluctuated. problem can be solved by CMC. 53
3. Control of the DC Transmission

What will happen if AC network of the inverter side is too weak!

voltage voltage

More Weak
Vdr
X
Weak AC
CEA
* Vdr * = min
Vdi * X
Vdi
Id CEA Id VC
CMC * = min CMC
* > min

Id current Id current

In this range the intersection This problem can be solved by

is poorly to define and both adjust VI characteristic of the
current controllers will hunt inverter to voltage control (VC) in
between the operating points. order to avoid hunting between two
controllers. 54
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Voltage Control (VC)

it is very effective when the inverter is connected to a weak
AC network. The normal operating point X corresponds to a value
of higher than the minimum. Thus, the inverter (rectifier as well)
consumes more reactive power compared to inverter with CEA.

Y
Vdi
Y Y *
- Control

Maximum
selection
vA, vB , vC Minimum max
selection vdi*
6 Firing * PI
Control
-
6 min +
CMC
vdi
Voltage
measurement 55
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Voltage Dependent Current Limit (VDCL)

Commutation failures can occur during an AC fault on the
inverter side. It results in continue conduction of a valve beyond
its 120 conduction interval. The CC will regulate the DC current to
its rated value, but in the worst case, two inverter valves may form
DC short circuit and continue conducting for a long time, which
can cause valve damage. To prevent this problem, DC current
must be reduced. One possible to detect the AC side fault is the
lowering of the DC voltage. This voltage is typically chosen at 40%
of the rated voltage.

Id

56
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

Voltage Dependent Current Limit (VDCL)

The VDCL is a limitation imposed by the ability of the AC
system to sustain the DC power flow when the AC voltage at the
rectifier bus is reduced due to some disturbance as well. The
VDCL characteristics is presented below.
voltage voltage
VC VC
Vdr Vdr
* * X
X
Vdi Vdi
CMC
VDCL CMC Id VDCL Id
0.4 0.4 VDCL

VDCL Idmax
Id VDCL Id
Id-min Idmax current Id-min Id current

57
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Voltage Dependent Current Limit (VDCL)

id*

Minimum
selection
Vd
i CC
vd v i

v
1
1 Ts VDCL

vd Voltage
measurement

58
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Tap Change Control (TCC)

When voltage of the AC system of the rectifier and/or of the
inverter is fluctuated, transformer taps (both side) can adjust to
keep the DC voltage within desired limits or suitable operating
point. Generally, the tap will be changed when the firing angle of
the rectifier/inverter still reach its more than 10-15 minutes to
avoid interaction of other controls.

Example: if the firing angle () of the rectifier reaches minimum

limit (min) for long time. It means that the AC voltage of the
converter is not appropriate. Thus, AC voltage of the converter
must be reduced by tap changing of the converter transformer to
free the firing angle of the rectifier.

59
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Power Reversal
The VI characteristic of power reversion is presented below
(VDCL and VC are not included). The station 1 (rectifier) increases firing
angle () into the inverter region and the station 2 (inverter) decreases its
firing angle () into rectifier region. This can be performed without altering
the direction of current flow.
voltage voltage

V1dr
X * = min
*
V2di

Id current Id current

V1di

X
* = min
V2dr 60
*
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Y Id Y
Vdr Vdi
Y Y Y Y

Vd, Id,,

Max.
Max.

Control
Control

Firing
Firing

Min.
Min.

* *
id
Master Control
i d*
CC VDCL VDCL CC
p*/vd min
CAE min CAE
po p* Power
VC Vd* Vd* VC
order
p
TCC TCC
Modulation Signal
61
3. Control of the DC Transmission

CIGREs HVDC benchmark was simulated on ATP-EMTP with the

typical HVDC control schemes, which the CC mode was employed
at rectifier and VC mode was applied at inverter. All simulation
results are presented in normalized values.

Rectifier Current Control Inverter Voltage Control

Start Up HVDC
62
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

The HVDC started at 0.1 sec. The firing angle of rectifier started at 90
while the extinction angle of inverter started at 90.

Firing Angle () of Rectifier Firing Angle () of Inverter

Extinction angle () is also shown
Start Up HVDC
63
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

The HVDC started to reverse power flow direction at 0.5 sec. Firing
angle of the rectifier increased (with a ramp rate) into inverter zone
while firing angle of the inverter decreased (with a ramp rate) into
rectifier zone.

Firing Angle () of Rectifier and DC Current

Inverter
Power Reversal 64
3. Control of the DC Transmission

The power flow direction of the HVDC reversed at 0.9 sec.

Power Reversal
65
3. Control of the DC Transmission

VDCL performance during 1-phase fault at AC network

of the rectifier station.
Va Vb Vc

1 phase Fault at AC network of the rectifier station

66
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

p.u. IREF Id Vdi Degree Alpha_r( r ) Alpha_i( i )

Id i
IREF

Vdi r

Fault at AC network of rectifier station

67
3. Control of the DC Transmission

VDCL performance during 1-phase fault at AC network

of the inverter station.
Va Vb Vc

1-phase Fault at AC network of the inverter station

68
 3. Control of the DC Transmission

p.u. IREF Id Vdi Degree Alpha_r( r ) Alpha_i( i )

Id i
Vdi IREF
r

Fault at AC network of inverter station

69
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Modulation signal is employed when a power

system has a special requirement such as
frequency control, power oscillation damping,
etc.
For example, the addition frequency control loop
is included into HVDC control system to stabilize
frequency of the AC system.

70
3. Control of the DC Transmission

Modulation Function of EGAT-TNB HVDC 71

3. Control of the DC Transmission

Power Swing Damping (PSD) Function of EGAT-TNB HVDC

72
Thank you very much
for your attention
References

1. Ani Gole, HVDC Transmission Lecture Note,

University of Manitoba, 2000.
2. Jos Arrilaga, High Voltage Direct Current
Transmission, 2nd , IEE-Press, 1998.
3. Dennis A. Woodford, HVDC Transmission, Manitoba
HVDC Research Center, Canada, 1998.
4. Erich Uhlmann, Power Transmission by Direct
Current, Springer Verlag, 1975.
5. Vijay K. Sood, HVDC and FACTS Controllers,
Kluwer. 2004.
6. Edward Wilson Kimbark, Direct Current
Transmission vol.1, Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
7. IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee, IEEE
guide for planning DC links terminating at AC
locations having low short-circuit capacities,
IEEE, 1997. 74