ENGLISH GRAMMATICS

Grammatics: the study on the theory of grammar. No grammar is value-free.

Any study or discipline is based on a certain theory or value.

The Object The Study

Language Linguistics
Economy Economics
Policy Politics
Behaviour Psychology
Society Sociology
Culture Anthropology
Ethnic Ethnography
Events History
Grammar Grammatics

Why is grammatical theory like that? What is the value or assumption or

philosophy behind or underlying a grammar or grammatical description?
 ENGLISH GRAMMATICS

Various Types of Grammar

1. Traditional Grammar
2. Structural Grammar
3. Transformational (Generative) Grammar
4. Stratificational Grammar
5. Tagmemics
6. Relational Grammar
7. Word Grammar
8. Universal Grammar
9. Lexicofunctional Grammar
10. Functional Grammar
11. Systemic Functional Grammar
12.
 Logical-Philosophical and
Ethnographic-Descriptive
Aspect Logical- Ethnographic-
Philosophical Descriptive
(FORMAL) (FUNCTIONAL)
1. Approah formmeaning, meaningform
formal functional
phonology, meaning phonology,
morphology, morphology, syntax
syntaxmeaning
2. Assumption language as rules language as resources

3. Closely related to thought (neurology, social phenomenon

psychology) and context (sociology,
anthropology, social
context)
4. Linguistic studies closely related to logic closely related to social
aspect, culture and
anthropology
sentence text
idealization of data natural data

5. Method science, almost no semiotics, emphasizing

consideration to social the social context use
context of langauge use of language
6. Proponent Modistae, Bloomfield, Hjelmslev, Matesius,
Chomsky, Pike, Firth, Halliday, Martin,

7. Tradition USA Europe
 ENGLISH GRAMMATICS

Two types of analysis

1. Immediate Constituent Analysis
2. Ranked Constituent Analysis

The criteria used:

1. formal, where every unit is described in its relation to
immediate element (maximal bracketing)
2. functional, where elements of the same rank or
function is described as one (minimal bracketing)
The young secretary wrote the letter neatly
The tough boy ran very quickly
 IC and RC Analysis

the young secretary wrote the letter neatly

 ENGLISH GRAMMATICS
Four possible types of analysis
1. The man wrote the letter (What did he do?)

2. The man wrote the letter (What happened?)

3. The man wrote the letter (Who wrote the letter?)
4. The man wrote the letter (What did he do to the letter?)
 Definition of Semiotics

the study of sign systems and their use

(Fawcett, Halliday, Lamb dan Makkai 1984: xiii
theory of code and formation of signs
Sign: something that stands for something else
Semiotics is constituted by two elements: the
content and expression plane or meaning
and expression

meaning
expression
 Semiotics of the Traffic Lights
stop red light

caution
amber light

pass on green light

 Branches of Semiotics
1. Zoosemiotics
2. Olfactory signs (code of scents, odors)
3. Tactile communication (blind and proxemic behaviour)
4. Codes of taste (culinary practice, traditional foods)
5. Paralinguistics (voice qualities, vocalization, sobbing,
whispering, yawning, belching)
6. Medical semiotics
7. Kinesics and proxemics (gestures and distance)
8. Musical codes
9. Formalized languages (algebraic and chemical symbols)
10. Written language, unknown alphabets, secret codes
 Branches of Semiotics
11. Natural languages
12. Visual communication (colour systems)
13. Systems of objects (architecture)
14. Plot structures (mythology, games, tales)
15. Cultural codes
16. Aesthetic texts
17. Mass communication
18. Rhetoric
Almost all aspects of life are related to semiotics:
- overthrown of Saddams statue
- burning of jalur gumilang by Indonesians
- receiving a letter in green paper
- Do you know how they call it Kisaran?
 Relation between meaning and expression
1. Iconic: meaning is almost identical with expression
2. Indexical: some elements of the expression point to
the meaning
3. Symbolic: no reason as to why the meaning is coded
the way it is
Iconic Indexical Symbolic
photograph of a cat mewing <cat>
[kt]

statue crescent, cross, fork house, tree

and spoon
 NONBIUNIQUE RELATION
One meaning is potentially coded by more than one expression
and an expression can code more than one meaning
There is no one-to-one relation between meaning and
expression

1. smile
happy 2. laugh
3. cry
4.
1. happy
2. cynical smile
3. crazy
4.
 UNMARKED AND MARKED REALIZATION

happy 1. smile 40% U

2. laugh 35%
3. whistle 20%
4. cry 5%.....M
5.
 Coding meaning in U and M expression
prohibitio 1. Do not bring the dirty can into the
n to bring room!
a dirty 2. The dirty can will litter the floor.
can 3. The floor has been cleaned by
Mum
4. A good boy will not bring a dirty
can into the room.
5. Ill slap you if you bring the dirty
can into the room.
6. If I were you I would not bring the
dirty can into the room.
7.
 An Expression with many meaning
1. medical We will do an
operation operation
2. military tomorrow.
campaign
3. price check
4. robbery'
5. seeking for
matcher
6. ...
 Language and Social Context

SOCIAL CONTEXT

LANGUAGE
 Language and Its Social Context

IDEOLOGY

CULTURE

SITUATION

LANGUAGE
 DENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE
SEMIOTICS
Denotative Semiotics: having meaning and
expression

Connotative: having meaning with no means

of expression

It is analogous to a parasite plant stuck in the

denotative one. To realize the meaning it
borrows another semiotics, typically below it.
 Language as a denotative and connotative
semiotics
Being different from the general semiotics, the semiotics of
language is constituted by three levels or strata: meaning,
form and expression or technically constituted by
semantics, lexicogrammar and phonology/graphology/sign
Social context forms a connotative semiotics stuck up above
language.

SEMANTICS LEXICOGRAMMAR PHONOLOGY/GRAPHOLOGY

Multi-stratified semiotics of language

IDEOLOGY

CULTURE

SITUATION

SEMANTICS LEXICOGRAMMAR PHONOLOGY/GRAPHOLOGY/

SIGN
 Text with its Meanings

- We will hold a operation tomorrow

1. medical operation
2. military campaign
3. price inspection
4. robbery, theft, blackmail, looting
5. seeking matchers
6. asking (potential) passengers
 Text and Semiotics
A text is a semantic unit not grammatical one.
A text forms in context therefore it construes with the contexts.
The philosophy underlying SFL is constructivism.
1. A serpent searching its way on to the sea, the winding path of
serpent, the winding (Kisaran)
2. The clitic of nya in Indonesian
3. When is the New Year?
4. Why do they call it Borneo, Malvinas?
5. No two words of different realization expressions have
identical meanings
6. The case of Indonesian and Brazilian students
7. Banana Republic, my people can do no wrong, surga di
telapak kaki ibu, kalau guru berdiri, berjuang sampai titik
, terpesona melihat wajahnya, pop songs (sungai Musi
8. advertisement
9. Life is a semiotic struggle for a settled meaning.
 Semiotik Bahasa

Behavioral Potential
can do

Meaning Potential
can mean

Lexicogrammar Potential
Social Context can say
ideology, genre, register

Semantics
Lexicogrammar sound

Phonology
Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic Relation
Paradigmatic: vertical relation of inter-taxonomic elements in a
network of system (system network) on the basis of choice.
Sintagmatig: horizontal relation of elements of different kinds
constituiting a unit on the basis of structure or order.

memakan
makan Ali memakan sate di warung.
makanan Makanan itu enak.
dimakan
termakan
pemakan
...
 Metafunctions

No. Function Description Realizations

1a. Experiential Representing Elemental
Representation Part/whole
Constituency
(multivariate)
1b Logical Relating Recursive
Relation/logic Part/whole
Interdependency
(univariate)
2. Interpersonal Exchanging Prosodic
Interaction Prosody
3. Textual Organizing Periodic
Message Wave
 Nature of Realization
1a. Elemental

1b. Recursive

2. Prosodic

3. Culminative Periodic
 Realizations of Social Context in
Linguistic Representation

Field
Ideational

TRANSITIVITY
Tenor
Interpersonal

Mood/Residue
Sound
Mode
Textual

Theme/Rheme
 Paradigmatic Representation
(Field)
Paradigmatic representation in network system
Material
go, walk, write
Primary
Mental
know, like, love
Relational
Process BE, sound, look

Behavioural
sleep, smile, cough

Secondary Verbal
say, tell, ask

Existential
There is a book ..
 Paradigmatic Representation (cont)

Giving
Statement
ROLES

SPEECH Demanding Question

FUNCTION

Information Offer
COMMODITY

Goods & Services Command

Suggestion
 Interstratified Realization
Realisasi antarstrata Konteks Situasi, Semantik,
dan Lexicogrammar dinyatakan dalam bentuk
sistem network

IPTEK

IDEATIONAL
TRANSITIVITY
 Interstratified Realization (cont)

Objektif

Nirpersona
IPTEK
Praktikal
Teknikal
Material
Tulisan
Proses Mental

EXPERIENTIAL Relasional
Pratisipan
PROSES
Tingkah
Sikumstan
laku
Verbal
Eksistensial
 Realisasi Pengalaman IPTEK
Intensitasmerokok berasosiasi dengan tingkat
mortalitas. (Carrier, Process: Relational,
Attribut).

Seseorang merokok. Semakin banyak dia

merokok, semakin banyak dia mengkonsumsi
nikotin yang merusak kesehatannya. Dengan
demikian umurnya akan berkurang.
 Tense

Experiential Structure
1. ate
did eat
Finite Even

could not have been going to be being eaten

Finite polarity Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary Auxiliary Event
1 2 3 4 5
 Primary and Secondary Tense

time primary secondary

past V-ed V-en
was/were, took, walked have been, have taken, have walked

present V-s be + V-ing

Ii, am, are, tale, walked be being, be taking, be walking

future will + V (infinite) be going to + V (infinite)

will be, will take, will work be going to, be going to take
 Naming of Tense

was going to have been working

Finite be going to have(-en) be-ing (work)
(past) (inf.)
past future past present

present in past in future in past

 Occurrences of Tense

Secondary
Primary Verbal Group
first second third
- 0 + - 0 + - 0 + - 0 +

use

are using

are going to be using

is going to be being tested

has been going to be

being tested