INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH
 Why Data Analysis?
Because youre interested in answering questions
Why people behave the way they do (psychology) or
Why behaviours differ across cultures (anthropology),
How businesses maximize their profit (business),
How did the dinosaurs die (palaeontology),
Does eating tomatoes protect you against cancer (medicine, biology),
Is it possible to build a quantum computer (physics, chemistry),
The planet hotter than it used to be and in what regions (geography, environmental
studies)?

To answer questions, you need two things: Data and an explanation of those data.
 Types of Research/Data
Quantitative Data: When numbers are involved the research involves quantitative
methods.
Qualitative Methods: One can also generate and test theories by analyzing language (such
as conversations, magazine articles, media broadcasts and so on). This involves qualitative
methods. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not
just what, where, when. Main methods for collecting qualitative data are:
a. Interviews, Focus groups, Observations.
b. Self Study, Ethnography
c. Action Research: Methods of Action Research
Observing individuals or groups
Using audio and video tape recording
Using structured or semi-structured interviews
Taking field notes
Using analytic memoing
Using or taking photography
The Research Process
IV. LEVELS/SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Nominal Scale.

Ordinal Scale.

Interval Scale.

Ratio Scale.
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 NOMINAL SCALE
Basic Permissible Statistics
Examples
Characteristics Descriptive Inferential
Gender,
Race, Religion Frequency
Type of Bank, Distribution,
Numbers
Histogram, Chi-Square,
Identify and Student Registration Nos.
Pie chart, Binomial Test.
classify Objects
Nos on Players Shirt Percentages
Brand Last Purchased and Mode

Favorite color

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 ORDINAL SCALE
Permissible Statistics
Basic Characteristics Examples
Descriptive Inferential

Numbers Indicate the Socio-economic status, Previous

relative positions of the Students rank in the class, Previous (Nominal) + (Nominal) +
objects but not the Range, Quartile, Rank-order
Consumer satisfaction ratings.
magnitude of the Percentile and Correlation,
differences between Military rank Median Friedman
them Ranking of Bank or brands. ANOVA

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 INTERVAL SCALE
Basic Permissible Statistics
Examples
Characteristics Descriptive Inferential

Previous (Nominal +
Temperature Previous Ordinal) + Variance,
Differences
(Fahrenheit, (Nominal + Product Moment
between objects
Celsius) Ordinal) + Correlations, t-tests,
can be compared;
Mean, ANOVA, Regression,
zero point is Attitudes, Standard Multivariate analysis
arbitrary Opinions deviation accepting metric scale
data

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 RATIO SCALE
Basic Permissible Statistics
Examples
Characteristics Descriptive Inferential

Length, Weight Previous (Nominal

True Zero at the Previous (Nominal +
Age, Income + Ordinal +
origin, Differences Ordinal + Interval) +
Interval) +
between objects Costs, Sales Geometric Mean,
Coefficient of
can be compared; Harmonic Mean
Share Prices Variation

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 Data collection: What to measure
Independent variable: A variable thought to be the cause of some effect.
This term is usually used in experimental research to denote a variable that
the experimenter has manipulated.
Dependent variable: A variable thought to be affected by changes in an
independent variable. You can think of this variable as an outcome.
Predictor variable: A variable thought to predict an outcome variable. This is
basically another term for independent variable
Outcome variable: A variable thought to change as a function of changes in
a predictor variable. This term could be synonymous with dependent
variable for the sake of an easy life.
V. Reliability & Validity of a Survey
Instrument
I. Reliability
a) Test/Re-test Reliability
b) Alternative Form Reliability
c) Internal Consistency Reliability
II. Validity
a) Content Validity
b) Criterion Validity
c) Construct Validity

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