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AGGREGATE SUPPLY 3
TOPIC
A Way to View the Economy
An aggregate demand
(AD) curve is the
graphical representation
of aggregate demand.
AD is downward sloping
As the price level falls,
the quantity demanded
of Real GDP rises.
As the price level rises,
the quantity demanded
of Real GDP falls
Aggregate Demand
The interest rate can change due to things other than the
price level changing. Other things that change the interest
rate lead to a shift in the AD curve instead of a movement
along the AD curve.
Aggregate Demand
A Change in Quantity Demanded of Real GDP vs. a Change
in Aggregate Demand
A change in the price level brings about a change in the quantity
demanded of Real GDP.
True or false?
Consumption: C
Four factors can affect consumption:
1.Wealth
2.Expectations about future prices and income
3.Interest rate
4.Income taxes
Aggregate Demand
1. Wealth
Individuals consume not only on the basis of their present
income but also on the basis of their wealth.
Greater wealth makes individuals feel financially more secure
and thus more willing to spend.
Wealth C AD
Wealth C AD
Aggregate Demand
Interest rate C AD
Interest rate C AD
Aggregate Demand
4. Income Taxes
As income taxes rise, disposable income decreases. When people
have less take-home pay to spend, consumption falls.
Consequently, aggregate demand decreases.
Income taxes C AD
Income taxes C AD
Aggregate Demand
1. Interest Rate
As the interest rate rises, the cost of an investment project rises and
businesses invest less. As investment decreases, aggregate demand
decreases.
As the interest rate falls, the cost of an investment project falls and
businesses invest more. Consequently, aggregate demand increases.
Interest rate I AD
Interest rate I AD
Aggregate Demand
Government Expenditure: G
Government expenditure usually rises due to expansionary Fiscal
policy designed to reduce unemployment.
As Taka appreciates, Bangladeshi goods become more expensive and foreign goods
become cheaper, Bangladeshis increase their purchases of imported goods, and
foreigners cut back on their purchases of Bangladeshi exported goods. If exports fall
and imports rise, net exports decrease, thus lowering aggregate demand.
We started with a money supply of just Tk. 1, and that 1 Taka changed
hands three times. The average number of times a Taka changes hands
(or is spent) to buy final goods and services is what economists call
velocity. In our simple example, velocity is 3.
The product of our money supply (Tk. 1) and velocity (3) is Tk. 3, which
represents the total amount of spending in the economy.
Aggregate Demand
From our example, two things are obvious: First, total spending in the
economy can be a greater dollar amount than the money supply.
Proof: In our example, the money supply was Tk. 1, but total spending
equaled Tk. 3.
Now, say out of this Tk. 3, Tk. 1 is spent on C, Tk. 1 is spent on I and
Tk. 1 is spent on G. If, say, government expenditure rises to Tk. 2,
must some other spending component decline?
The answer is yes if neither the money supply nor velocity changes.
So, to summarize:
If both the money supply and velocity are constant, a rise in
one spending component (such as government expenditure)
necessitates a decline in one or more other spending
components.
Two Explanations:
1. Sticky wages
2. Worker misperceptions
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
1. Sticky wages
Some economists believe that wages are sticky, or inflexible.
This may be because wages are locked in for a few years due to
labor contracts that workers and management enter into.
Both labor and management may see this as in their best interest.
Management has some idea of what its labor costs will be during
the time of the contract.
Firms pay nominal wages but they decide how many workers to hire
based on real wages.
=
In short, more individuals are willing to work, and current workers are
willing to work more at higher real wages than at lower real wages.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
2. Worker misperceptions
Another explanation for the upward-sloping SRAS curve holds that
workers may misperceive real wage changes.
Suppose that the nominal wage is $30 an hour and price level is
$1.50. So, real wage = $30 / $1.50 = $20
Now suppose the nominal wage falls to $25 and the price level falls
to $1.25. The real wage is still $20 ($25 / $1.25 = $20) but workers
may not know this.
They know their nominal wage has fallen (i.e., they are earning $25
an hour instead of $30).They also may know that the price level is
lower, but they may not know initially how much lower the price level
is.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve: Why It Is Upward
Sloping
For example, suppose they mistakenly believe the price level has
fallen from 1.50 to 1.39.
They will then think that their real wage has actually fallen from $20
($30 / $1.50) to $17.98 ($25 / $1.39).
However, what about the workers? Will they be willing to supply more
labor at lower real wages? When real wage rises, its reasonable to
argue that employers will hire less workers. Because even if the
workers want to supply more, its really the employers prerogative to
decide how many workers they are willing to hire. But when real wage
falls, and workers do not want to supply more labor, its hard to justify
a scenario whereby employers are forcing workers to work.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
Issues with these two labor market based explanations
Take the second explanation. We have discussed the upward
sloping SRAS curve when workers underestimate the decline in
price. But what if they overestimate the price decline? Then, they will
think that real wage has actually gone up. Then they will be willing to
supply more labor. More labor implies more production. In that case
a fall in price would actually result in higher supply! Of course,
assuming that employers agree to hire more workers. If they dont,
then there will be no change in production. Either way, the
direct/positive relationship between price and quantity supplied
breaks down.
Also, why only assume that the workers misperceive real wage
changes? What happens if employers also have misperceptions?
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
Think about an individual firm: firm A. Its fair to assume that in the
short run the money wage rate and the prices of nonlabor inputs
remain unchanged. Now, if price of the good that firm A produces rises
with no change in these costs, then firm A can increase profit by
increasing production. Since any firm usually is in business to
maximize its profit, firm A will increase production.
Similarly, if price of the good produced by firm A falls while the money
wage rate and the prices of nonlabor inputs remain unchanged, then
firm A can reduce its losses (or profit reductions) by decreasing
production.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
1. Wage rates
2. Prices of nonlabor inputs
3. Productivity
4. Supply shocks
5. Expected price level
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
1. Wage rates
Changes in wage rates have a major impact on the position of
the SRAS curve because wage costs are usually a firms major
cost item.
Changes in Short-Run
Aggregate Supply: Shifts in
the SRAS Curve
Higher wage rates mean higher
costs and, at constant prices,
translate into lower profits and a
reduction in the number of units
(of a given good) that firms will
want to produce.
Lower wage rates mean lower
costs and, at constant prices,
translate into higher profits and
an increase in the number of
units (of a given good) firms will
decide to produce.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
3. Productivity
Productivity is the output produced per unit of input employed
over some period of time.
Technological advancements
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
4. Supply shocks
Major natural or institutional changes that affect aggregate supply
are referred to as supply shocks.
Supply shocks are of two varieties. Adverse supply shocks shift the
SRAS curve leftward.
Suppose individuals expect the price level to rise. Thus they expect
their real wage to decline and will work less. Working less produces
less output; so the SRAS curve shifts leftward.
Short-Run Aggregate Supply
In the same month the value of the dollar was falling in foreign
exchange markets. In fact, the value of the dollar had been
falling for some time. Although the value of $1 was 0.83 in
January 2006, it had fallen to 0.69 by November 1, 2007.
1. If the AD curve shifted rightward more than the SRAS curve shifted
leftward, then Real GDP will rise.
2. If the AD curve shifted rightward by less than the SRAS curve shifted
leftward, then Real GDP would fall.
3. If the AD curve shifted rightward by the same amount as the SRAS
curve shifted leftward, then Real GDP would remain unchanged.
In all three cases, though, the price level would increase. Rising
aggregate demand, combined with falling short-run aggregate supply,
always results in a rising price level.
An Important Exhibit
Most economists argue that, in the long run, the economy produces the
full-employment Real GDP, Potential Real GDP or the Natural Real
GDP ( ). The aggregate supply curve that identifies the output the
economy produces in the long run is the long-run aggregate supply
(LRAS) curve.
Long-Run Aggregate Supply
Short-Run Equilibrium,
Long-Run Equilibrium, and In both short-run and long-
Disequilibrium run equilibrium, the quantity
In this Exhibit, the economy is supplied of Real GDP
at point 1, producing .In equals
other words, it is producing the quantity demanded.
Natural Real GDP. The So what is the difference
economy is in long-run between short-run
equilibrium when it produces equilibrium and
.
Long-Run Aggregate Supply
Do in Class:
Question:
Suppose wealth rises and at the same time, the price of
nonlabor inputs rises. What is the effect of these changes
on the price level and Real GDP?
Answer:
See page 219 of the textbook under the title Reality Can
Be Messy, and Correct Predictions Can Be Difficult to
Make