Basic Avionics Presentation

ALL AIRCRAFT MUST HAVE CERTAIN INSTRUMENTS IN A SPECIFIC POSITION.
THIS IS CALLED THE BASIC T.
AIR SPEED ARTIFICIAL

INDICATOR HORIZON ALTIMETER
HORIZONTAL
SITUATION
INDICATOR
ALL AIRCRAFT MUST HAVE CERTAIN INSTRUMENTS IN A SPECIFIC POSITION.
THIS IS CALLED THE BASIC T.
ATTITUDE &
AIR SPEED
DIRECTION
INDICATOR ALTIMETER
INDICATOR
HORIZONTAL
SITUATION
INDICATOR
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
THE NAVIGATION SYSTEM GIVES NAVIGATION DATA ON
RELATED INDICATORS ON THE INSTRUMENT PANEL.
THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NAVIGATION
SYSTEMS INSTALLED. THESE SYSTEMS ARE:-
FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT DATA
ATTITUDE AND DIRECTION
LANDING AND TAXI AIDS
INDEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINING
DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINING

FLIGHT ENVIRNOMENT DATA
PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM
AIR SPEED INDICATOR
ALTIMETER
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

ATTITUDE & DIRECTION
ATTITUDE &
TURN
DIRECTION
& SLIP
INDICATOR
HORIZONTAL
SITUATION
RADIO MAGNETIC
INDICATOR STANDBY
INDICATOR
COMPASS
LANDING & TAXI AIDS
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
GLIDESLOPE & LOCALISER
HORIZONTAL ATTITUDE &

DIRECTION
SITUATION INDICATOR INDICATOR
MARKER BEACON
A O M
INDEPENDENT POSITION DETERMNING
RADAR ALTIMETER TCAS
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING

WEATHER RADAR
RADIO
TRANSPONDER
MAGNETIC
INDICATOR
Distance Measuring
Equipment
ADF VOR
PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM
An Airspeed Indicator is a differential
pressure gauge that measures the
dynamic pressure of the air through
which the aircraft is flying.
Dynamic pressure is the difference in

the ambient static air pressure and the
ram pressure caused by the motion of
the aircraft through the air.
This dimensional change is measured
by a rocking shaft and a set of gears
that drives a pointer across the
instrument dial.
ALTIMETER.
GIVES A BAROMETRIC HEIGHT.

THIS IS ACHIEVED BY HAVING A STATIC
SOURCE ACTING ON A BELLOWS.
AS THE AIRCRAFT CLIMBS, THE STATIC
PRESSURE IN THE INSTRUMENT
DECREASES, THE BELLOWS EXPANDS,
AND THE NEEDLE INDICATES A HIGHER
ALTITUDE.
AS THE AIRCRAFT DESCENDS, THE
STATIC PRESSURE IN THE INSTRUMENT
INCREASES, THE BELLOWS
CONTRACTS, AND THE NEEDLE
INDICATES A LOWER ALTITUDE.
TO COUNTER DAILY CHANGES IN
PRESSURE, IT IS POSSIBLE TO ADJUST
THE BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. A
STANDARD DAY IS 1013 MILLIBARS.
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR.
THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR USES

THE CHANGE IN STATIC PRESSURE TO
GIVE A RATE OF CLIMB OR DESCENT.
THIS IS ACHIEVED BY HAVING A

CALIBRATED LEAK.
BY ALLOWING THE STATIC PRESSURE

TO LEAK FROM THE INSTRUMENT AS IT
CLIMBS INDICATES A RATE OF CLIMB.
BY ALLOWING THE STATIC PRESSURE

TO LEAK INTO THE INSTRUMENT AS IT
DESCENDS INDICATES A RATE OF
DESCENT.
AIRCRAFT COMPASS SYSTEM
STANDBY COMPASS
&
GYRO COMPASS
STANDBY COMPASS.
The standby or E2B compass is a direct

indicating compass system.
This is normally a magnetic compass
suspended in oil to damp out any
overswing.
It can be corrected for A errors (errors
induced by the aircrafts magnetic field) by
rotating the whole assembly on its
mounting.
B & C errors (earths magnetic field) can be
removed by making adjustments to the B &
C correction pots.
It is highly susceptible to local magnetic
fields and is only reliable when these fields
are in the same state as they were when
the compass swing was carried out (i.e..
the heated windows being switched off).
COMPASS SYSTEM
FLUX VALVE.
This consists of a 3 spoke device on a

flexible mounting, damped with oil. It is
secured to the aircraft as far from magnetic
interference as possible.
A coil mounted on the hub of the spokes is

fed with 400 Hz a.c. Coils mounted on
each spoke are connected so that normally
the EMFs induced in them add up to zero.
However the earths magnetic field causes
an imbalance in this, giving an output
proportional to the direction of the earths
magnetic field.
A errors (aircraft magnetic field errors) are

normally removed by rotating the flux
valve.
VERTICAL GYRO.
If a Vertical Gyro is used as a heading

indicator, it will have the normal
problems of a gyroscope used over the
earths surface.
It could drift a maximum of 360 degrees

in 24 hours and would normally be
corrected by reference to a compass.
Normally, the directional gyro unit

contains the electronics required to
update and correct the output signal.
COMPASS COMPENSATOR.
This allows the compass

system to be corrected for B &
C errors (earths magnetic field)
HORIZONTAL
SITUATION
The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), has a INDICATOR
rotating compass card which indicates the
aircraft heading relative to the aircrafts nose.
The HSI compass card is driven by the output

from the vertical gyro.
The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), compass RADIO

card is also driven by the output from the MAGNETIC
vertical gyro. INDICATOR
NOTE: No. 1 HSI and No. 2 RMI are driven by the
No. 1 compass system and vertical gyro.
No. 2 HSI and No. 1 RMI are driven by the No. 2

compass system and vertical gyro.
ATTITUDE & DIRECTION INDICATOR
The Attitude & Direction indicator, displays a

constant visual indication of the aircrafts
lateral and longitudinal attitude relative to the
horizon.
The pilots and co-pilots indicators are

powered with 115-volt Ac, 400 Hz through 0.5
ampere fuses labelled PILOT ART HORIZ
and COPILOT ART HORIZ, located on the
overhead fuse panel.
A symbolic aircraft reference bar in the centre

of the instrument represents the aircraft.
STANDBY HORIZON.
A Dc-powered standby indicator

was installed on the pilots left
panel to fulfil European Union
requirements for all series
aircraft.
Power for the unit is obtained

from the Auxiliary battery bus-
bar through a 5 ampere circuit
breaker labelled STANDBY ART
HORIZ LOCATED ON THE MAIN
CIRCUIT BREAKER PANEL.
TURN & SLIP INDICATOR.
The turn and slip indicator

consists of an electrically
driven gyroscope which
indicates rate of yawl, and a
fluid dampened, ball type
inclinometer which indicates
slip and skid.
Each instrument has a power

off warning flag.
GENERAL.
The instrument landing system (ILS) is a

radio navigation system used when the
aircraft is in approach mode.
ILS is used to provide steering information to

keep the aircraft approach to a runway. It
places the aircraft in proper course and
altitude for a landing.
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.
An ILS facility provides guidance to an aircraft by providing signals that

direct the pilot to a 3 degree approach angle centred along the runway.
This is done by separating the approach into horizontal and vertical
components. Deviation from the localiser course (left/right) would be
displayed on an indicator, as would deviation from the glideslope
(up/down).
Marker beacons are installed along the glidepath as reference points for
locating the aircraft along the glidepath and as reference points for
aircraft flying at higher altitudes.
Localiser and glideslope frequencies are paired, selection of the

localiser frequency automatically selects that of the glideslope.
ILS
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
CONTROL UNIT ILS INDICATOR RECEIVER ANTENNA AIRCRAFT

COMMS
CONTROL UNIT.
The control unit provides the

necessary control and
switching circuits for the ILS
system.
The control unit may also
provide frequency selection for
VHF comms
The control unit selects the VHF
localiser frequency which
automatically selects the paired
UHF glideslope frequency.
DEVIATION INDICATORS.
The ILS signals will produce steering

signals to indicate how much the
aircraft is off track either up/down or
left/right.
If the signal is unreliable a flag will

cover the indicators or a warning flag
will be displayed on the indicator
RECEIVER
The receiver contains the necessary circuits
for receiving, decoding and processing the
bearing information from the transmitted
VOR signal.
The receiver also contains self monitoring

circuits that confirm the validity of the
received signals and the reliability of the
bearing information sent to the indicator.
Most VOR receivers also contain circuits

required to decode and process lateral
and/or vertical guidance information from an
ILS ground facility.
It may also process DME and marker beacon

information.
ANTENNA
Three antennas are required for
complete ILS operation.
A horizontally polarised, omnidirectional

antenna operating in the 108 to 112 Mhz
range is required for localiser operation.
Typically the localiser receiver uses the
same antenna as the VOR.
Glideslope operation requires a folded

dipole antenna capable of receiving AM
signals in the 329 to 335 Mhz range.
The marker beacon typically uses a loop

antenna operating at 75 Mhz.
COMMS SELECTOR
The ground station sends out an audio signal (morse code) every 30
seconds.
This identifying signal is sent through the aircraft comms system to

allow the crew to identify the VOR/ILS beacon that they are tracking.
Audio signals are sent to the aircraft system as it flies over the marker
beacons :- 400 Hz outer, 1300 Hz middle and 3000 Hz airways tones.
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A O M
ILS
GROUND STATIONS
LOCALISER GLIDESLOPE MARKER BEACON

ANTENNA ANTENNA ANTENNAS
LOCALIZER.
This is located at the far (departure)

end of the instrument runway.
It operates between 108 and 112 Mhz
Its lowest assigned frequency is 108.1
Mhz.
Only the odd decimal frequencies are
localiser frequencies, i.e. 109.3, 110.7
and 111.9.
The localiser is radiated to produce
two intersecting lobes, left and right,
directed along the length of the
runway. The lobe on the left is
predominately modulated with 90 Hz
and the lobe on the right with 150 Hz.
The two signals are equal along the
centre line of the runway.
GLIDESLOPE.
This is located at the near end of the

runway to one side.
It operates between 328.6 and 335.4

Mhz.
The correct frequency is automatically

selected on selecting the localiser
frequency.
The glideslope signal is radiated to

produce two intersecting lobes one
above the other. The upper lobe is
predominantly modulated at 90 Hz and
the lower at 150 Hz, with the two signals
being equal along the glidepath.
MARKER BEACON.
There are three marker beacon antennas,
outer, middle, inner.
The outer marker transmits a 400Hz audio

tone and when over it, illuminates the blue
outer marker light, typically 4 to 7 miles
from the runway.
A O M
The middle marker transmits a 1300Hz

audio tone and when over it, illuminates
the amber middle marker light, typically 0.6
miles from runway.
The airways marker transmits a 3000Hz

audio tone and when over it, illuminates
the white inner light, typically at the end of
the runway.
HOW ILS WORKS.
The pilot selects the frequency of an ILS ground station.
The matched glideslope frequency is automatically selected.
The pilot using conventional navigation techniques or guidance from

air traffic control, will then manoeuvre the aircraft onto the approach
course.
Once on the approach course, the aircraft will cross the marker
beacons as it descends.
The aircraft, now within range of the runway and on direct course for it,
is flown to a landing.
HOW ILS WORKS.
If the aircraft is too far left then the proportion of the 90 Hz signal
is greater than that of the 150 Hz and a fly right signal is
displayed on the localiser steering indicator. The converse of this
happens if the aircraft is too far right.
If the aircraft is too far up then the proportion of the 90 Hz signal

is greater than that of the 150 Hz and a fly down signal is
displayed on the glideslope steering indicator. The converse of
this happens if the aircraft is too low.
If all signals are in equilibrium, then the aircraft is flying right

down the middle of the ILS signals.
RADAR ALTIMETER
RAD ALT
GENERAL.
The radar altimeter is used to provide accurate aircraft

height above terrain information.
This is an airborne system used to determine the accurate
aircraft height above terrain.
The altimeter transmits a constant train of radar frequency

pulses to the ground, receives the reflected pulses, and
measures the elapsed time between the transmission and
reception of each pulse. The elapsed time is processed to
provide an analogue voltage to drive the indicator.
INDEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINIG
RADAR
ALTIMETER
TRANSMITTER/ INDICATOR ANTENNA

RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER.
The transmitter/receiver unit

contains all the necessary
circuitry for the generation,
reception and tracking of
height determining radar
frequency pulses.
INDICATOR.
The indicator converts the output of the

transmitter/receiver unit, to a direct scale
readings of the aircrafts height above
terrain.
On pushing the test button, the alt

needle is driven to 50 feet, the
on/off/failure flag comes into view and
the low level warning light comes on if
the low level warning system is set to
less than 50 feet.
And a low level height warning system:-

This consists of an adjustable bug and
an indicator light or lights.
ANTENNA.
Two identical horn type antennas are

flush mounted to the underside of
the aircraft.
They are connected to the

transmitter/receiver by co-axial
cables (the length of which is
critical).
One antenna is used for transmitting

and the other for receiving.
Bonding of the antenna to the aircraft

skin is critical and poor bonding can
lead to erratic readings.
HOW RAD ALT WORKS.
The transmitter produces a train of radar

frequency pulses to drive the transmitter
antenna.
Coincident with the transmission of each
pulse a reference pulse is supplied from
the transmitter to the tracker.
The receiver receives the reply pulses
from the receive antenna, processes
them and sends them to the tracker.
The tracker takes the reference pulse and
the received pulse measures the time
difference and converts this to an
analogue voltage to drive the indicator.
The indicator takes the voltage and
drives the needle to show aircraft height.
If the aircraft is above the radar altitude
range, the needle is driven behind the no
track mask.
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION

AVOIDANCE SYSTEM
TCAS
&
ACAS
INDEPENDENT POSITION DETEMINING
GENERAL.
Traffic alert and collision avoidance

system (TCAS) and Airborne collision
and avoidance system (ACAS) provide
conflict resolution advisories in the
form of vertical readouts.
It can be operated in several
configurations to display traffic and
resolution advisories.
TCAS/ACAS
This is a ground and airborne based system using the

mode S facility of the ATC. Mode S transponder equipped
aircraft aircraft and ground station enhance the operation
of the ATC by adding a data link feature and a discrete
interrogation capability, in addition to performance
improvements in determining the aircraft location.
The mode S transponder data link capabilities include bi-

directional air-to-air information exchange, ground to air
data uplink, air to ground data downlink and multisite
message protocol.
TCAS
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
MODE S TCAS TCAS DISPLAY

ATC TRANSPONDER COMPUTER ANTENNA UNIT
MODE S ATC TRANSPONDER.
As a Mode S transponder equipped aircraft

receives an ATC Mode S interrogation, it
sends out a reply signal that can be
received by both ATC and other Mode S
transponder systems.
As a mode S aircraft flies into the airspace

served by another mode S interrogator, the
first mode S interrogator may send position
information and the aircrafts discreet
address to the second interrogator.
Aircraft are tracked by the interrogator

throughout its assigned airspace.
A mode S aircraft replies with its altitude or

its ATC code,depending on the
interrogation.
TCAS COMPUTER.
The transmitter interrogates mode C

and mode S transponders in nearby
aircraft. The receiver (in the computer)
accepts transponder replies.
The computer determines the closest

point approach (the minimum
separation between the TCAS equipped
aircraft and the traffic encountered.
The computer then gives traffic alert

(TA) and resolution advisories (RA) as
appropriate on the TCAS display.
It also generates the appropriate audio

response.
TCAS ANTENNA.
The TCAS antennas mount

on the top and bottom of
the aircraft to give all
round aircraft cover.
DISPLAY UNIT.
The traffic display shows nearby traffic

with mode C or mode S transponders
that reply to TCAS interrogations.
The traffic display shows an airplane
symbol in white in the lower centre of
the screen.
A white dotted 2nmi range ring around
the airplane symbol (units can show a
40nmi range and a 20nmi dotted circle
appears when 40nmi is selected).
Four types of TCAS traffic symbols.
RA traffic- solid red square. TA traffic-
solid amber circle. Proximate traffic-
solid white or cyan circle. Other traffic
as open white or cyan diamond
Various TCAS annunciators and flags
HOW TCAS WORKS.
TCAS is designed to protect a volume of
airspace around the TCAS equipped aircraft.
The system interrogates mode C & S
transponders in nearby aircraft and the
computer analyses their replies to show the
aircrafts bearing, range, altitude and vertical
speed on a traffic display.
The computer also analyses the replies to
determine a straight line closure rate and the
closest point of approach (CPA) between
your aircraft and the traffic aircraft.
When the closest point of approach (CPA)
penetrates the protected airspace around
your aircraft and the is within 15 to 48
seconds , the system gives appropriate aural
and visual TA & RA on the TCAS display.
HOW TCAS WORKS.
The TCAS system gives RAs in

the form of vertical manoeuvre
designed to increase the
separation of the intruding
threat aircraft and your own.
The vertical manoeuvres are
shown as red and green arcs on
the VSI indicator along the
vertical speed scale.
The green arc shows the vertical
speed to fly and the red arc
shows the vertical speed to
avoid.
EGPWS.
The EGPWS uses the GPWS functions plus additional enhanced terrain
alerting features.
The EGPWS provides terrain display, situational awareness, terrain

alerting and warning, and obstacle alerting and warning to the pilot.
It is intended to give advanced alerting and warning to the pilot to help

reduce the possibility of controlled flight into terrain.
The EGPWS triggers the following warnings:-

Aural warnings comprising aural messages heard over the flight
compartment headsets and speakers.
Visual warnings: illumination of TERRAIN and BELOW G/S (below
glideslope) lamps in the pilots and co-pilots field of vision.
Visual warnings on a display using colours to represent the threat.

EGPWS
EGPWS
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
AIRCRAFT WARNING EGPWS DISPLAY

AUDIO LAMPS COMPUTER
AIRCRAFT AUDIO.
The aural messages are digitally synthesized and stored in read

only memories in the GPWS computer.
When a warning is generated, the information stored in the

appropriate memory location is retrieved and converted to two
audio signals. One is applied to the pilots headset and speaker, the
other to the co-pilots headset and speaker.
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WARNING LAMPS.
The visual warning of a EGPWS mode come in the form of a lamps

in direct view of the pilot and co-pilot.
EGPWS COMPUTER.
This contain the necessary circuits

to receive data from various
sources, process it and produce the
appropriate warnings to the aircrew.
It also produces a visual warning
onto a display.
Inputs to the EGPWS computer
come from the:-
Rad ALT
Air Data and Servo Instrument
System
Landing and Taxing Aids
Flight Instrument System
Flap Control
Landing Gear
Stall Warning
DISPLAY.
This displays terrain threats, by the use of

colours, on the aircraft flight path.
The display range is selectable by the pilot
from 1 nm to 320 nm.
The colours are:-
50% Red :- +2000 feet and over

50% Yellow :- +1000 feet to +2000 feet
25% Yellow :- -250 feet to +1000 feet
50% Green :- -1000 feet to 250 feet
16% green :- -2000 feet to 1000 feet
Black :- below 2000 feet
Cyan :- below 2000 feet
HOW EGPWS WORKS
The EGPWS receives the following inputs
Radio height from the radar alt.
Vertical speed from the air data system.
Indicated air speed from the air data system.
Glideslope deviation and validity from the VOR/ILS/MB system.
A back course localiser signal if back course mode is selected.
A signal from the flaps, if the flaps are in the landing position.
A signal from the landing gear, if retraceable landing gear is fitted.
An input from the stall warning if triggered.
The EGPWS computer processes these inputs and determines which

of the 6 warning modes are enabled and if any of the warning
envelopes are being penetrated.
When the aircraft operation deviates into a dangerous condition

(warning envelope penetrated) visual and aural warnings are
generated.
MODE VISUAL WARNING AURAL WARNING

1- Excessive sink rate TERRAIN lamps SINK RATE
WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP
2- Excessive closure rate TERRAIN lamps TERRAIN
WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP
3- Altitude loss after takeoff TERRAIN lamps DONT SINK
4- Terrain clearance TERRAIN lamps TOO LOW TERRAIN
TOO LOW GEAR
TOO LOW FLAPS
5- Inadvertent descent below BELOW G/S INHIBIT LAMPS GLIDESLOPE
glideslope
6- Advisory callouts BANK ANGLES
MINIMUMS
HOW EGPWS WORKS.
The EGPWS computer processes the data from its memory, using the
information from its inputs work out where it is, and produce a terrain
map of the aircrafts locale.
MODE 1
MODE 2A
MODE 2B
MODE 3
MODE 4A
MODE 4B
MODE 4C
MODE 5
EGPWS INDICATORS
WEATHER RADAR
WEATHER RADAR
The weather radar system is an airborne system that
provides a moving navigational display which graphically
shows the relationship of the pilots selected course to
significant weather.
Only precipitation (or objects more dense than water) will

be detected by X band weather radar. Therefore weather
radar does not detect clouds, thunderstorms or turbulence
directly.
The best radar reflectors are raindrops and wet hail. The
larger the raindrop the better it reflects. Because large
raindrops in a concentrated area are a characteristic of a
severe thunderstorm, the radar displays this as a strong
echo.
WEATHER
RADAR
DISPLAY TRANSMITTER/ ANTENNA

UNIT RECEIVER
DISPLAY UNIT
The basic weather display allows the

selection of various modes of
operation.
Various ranges.
And by the use of colours a weather
intensity indication.
Black :- nil returns.
Green :- weak returns, light turbulence.
Yellow :- moderate returns, light to
moderate turbulence.
Red :- strong/very strong returns,
severe turbulence.
Magenta :- intense/extreme,
severe/extensive turbulence, hail
lightning.
TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER
This contains all the necessary

electronics to generate the
transmission pulses and receive and
decode the replies.
It also controls the motors that
control the sweep of the antenna.
The decode replies are transmitted to
the display unit, and depending on
the mode selected displayed as
weather returns.
This unit can be part of the antenna
unit to limit the use of wave guides.
ANTENNA
Mounted in the nose cone

of the aircraft.
It is a single antenna that

transmits and receives the
X-band (8000 to 12500
MHz) radio pulses.
HOW WEATHER RADAR WORKS
The transmitter generates microwave energy in the

form of pulses. These pulses are then transferred to
the antenna where they are focused into a beam by
the antenna. When a pulse intercepts a target, the
energy is reflected as an echo, or return signal back
to the antenna. From the antenna, the return signal is
transferred to the receiver and processing circuits
located in the Tx/Rx unit. The echos or return
signals are displayed on a indicator.
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER
ADF
INTRODUCTION
The automatic direction finder (ADF) is

the oldest and most widely used radio
navigation systems because of the
availability of numerous ground
stations.
INTODUCTION
The concept of ADF navigation is based on the ability of an airborne
system to provide bearing indication with respect to the aircrafts centre
line, based upon the direction of arrival of a radio wave from a selected
ground station.
The airborne portion of the ADF consists of a receiver, control unit,

indicator, fixed loop antennas and a sense antenna.
The ground facility consists of a transmitter and antenna. A typical

ground facility would be an AM radio station (1215 KHz Virgin) or a
non-directional beacon (NDB).
ADF
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
AIRCRAFT INDICATOR CONTROL UNIT RECEIVER ANTENNA

AUDIO
AUDIO SYSTEM
On selecting an ADF beacon frequency the
beacon identification can be confirmed either
through the aircraft headset or speaker,
depending on audio control unit selection, by
its morse ident or audio output.
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INDICATOR
All indicators used with the ADF

system indicate the bearing of the
ground station. That is , the needle of
the indicator always points to the
station that the receiver is tuned to.
An ADF indicator will have a needle

rotating against a rotating azimuth
card, to indicate the bearing to a
ground station, relative to the nose
of the aircraft. (Radio Magnetic
Indicator, RMI)
If the ADF signal is lost or ANT is

selected on the control unit, the
receiver will send the indicator an
invalid signal which will park the ADF
indicating needle at the 3 o clock
position.
CONTROL UNIT
The ADF control unit provides the
control and switching circuits to
select the ADF receiver operating
mode and frequency.
It allows selections in the ADF

operating range between 190 to 1750
KHz.
With the switch position in the ANT

position, audio only signals are
processed by the receiver. The
bearing pointer will park at the 3
oclock position.
With the switch position in the ADF

position, both audio and bearing
information is processed by the
receiver.
RECEIVER
The ADF receiver contains the

necessary circuits for the reception
and processing of radio signals to
provide relative bearing information
to an indicator.
The receiver also contains the
circuits required to confirm the
validity of the received signal and the
reliability of the receiver itself.
If the received signal is not valid or if
no signal is received, then it sends an
output signal to the indicator telling it
to park the ADF needle at the 3
oclock position.
ANTENNA
The ADF receiver requires two types of

antenna. An omnidirectional sense antenna
is required to help tune the receiver and a
loop antenna is required to provide the
bearing. Both antennas operate in the 190 to
1750 KHz frequency range.
Characteristics of the loop antenna are used

to determine the bearing to a selected
ground station. Since the loop antenna is
directional, the received signal strength is
relative to the position of the antenna with
respect to the ground station.
In the current ADF systems, the antennas

are mounted in a fixed position relative to
the aircraft. Two loop antennas are used
and are physically 90 degrees apart. The
sense antenna may also be contained in the
same package as the loop antennas.
ADF
GROUND STATIONS
190 TO 1750 Khz
COMMERCIAL NON DIRECTIONAL BEACONS

RADIO STATION NDB
550 TO 1660 Khz 190 TO 550 Khz
COMMERCIAL RADIO STATIONS
In some parts of the world, commercial

radio stations may be the only
navigational aid available. They often
give a valuable cross-check on other
navigation facilities.
Commercial broadcast stations are not
limited to line of sight reception. ADF
systems can receive signals from over
the horizon.
Ground waves are the only transmitted
waves suitable for direction finding with
loop antennas. At commercial broadcast
frequencies the ground wave may be
overridden by unreliable sky waves.
The station selected must be of relatively
high power and low frequency for best
results in ADF use.
Frequency range 550 to 1660 KHz
NON DIRECTIONAL BEACONS
The NDB is a low to medium-frequency

navigation aid primarily intended to provide a
broadcast signal to a mobile direction finder.
The NDB radiates an omnidirectional signal.
Low-powered NDBs are installed at some

marker sites to assist pilots in transitioning to
the approach aid. The low-powered NDB has an
effective range of 15 to 20 miles.
High powered NDBs are used as outer marker

compass locators at some locations. (They are
co-located at the outer marker of the ILS)
Compass locators transmit 2- letter ID groups.

(Morse ident).
Frequency range 190 to 550 KHz.

HOW ADF WORKS
The pilot selects the frequency of a ground

station.
This is confirmed by its morse ident or audio

identification.
Using charts, the pilot can plot his direction to

the beacon. Using multiple beacons, the pilot can
triangulate his position.
The pilot may use the bearing information to fly

to the ground station if it is on his flight path.
HOW ADF WORKS
ADF uses two fixed loop antennas, one of

which is perpendicular to the other, and a
sense antenna.
The antennas are mounted in the aircraft so

that a signal can be received in one or both
loop antennas without manoeuvring the
aircraft.
The relationship between direction and

magnitude of signal of the voltages induced
in each antenna is processed by the sense
antenna and transmitted to the receiver.
This information is processed into a signal to

drive the needle to the correct bearing on the
indicator.
TRANSPONDER
TRANSPONDER
The airborne transponder is an

important part of the air traffic control
system being used today.
The safety of passengers, aircraft and

crew depends on the ability of air traffic
controllers to locate aircraft within
controlled airspace.
ATC
A transponder is the airborne receiver - transmitter portion of the ATC (Air Traffic
Control) beacon radar system. It sends an identifying coded signal, in response to
a transmitted interrogation from a ground based radar station, in order to locate
and identify the aircraft.
Air traffic controllers use the coded identification replies of transponders to

differentiate between the targets (aircraft) displayed on their radar screens. Being
able to identify the aircraft aids the controller in maintaining aircraft separation,
collision avoidance, and distinguishing types of aircraft.
The airborne portion of ATC consists of a transmitter/receiver (transponder), a

control unit, a digitiser and an antenna.
The ground facility consists of a primary radar station, a secondary surveillance

radar and a display unit (radar screen).
ATC
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
COTROL UNIT TRANSPONDER ANTENNA DIGITIZER

TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
CONTROL UNIT
The control unit contains the circuits

to allow the operator to select the
identifying code (0000 to 7777).
It also contains the controls

necessary to select an altitude source,
initiate a self test mode and select the
transponder reply mode.
(mode A, C & S).
Indicators on the control unit will

display the code selected.
An ident button is also available to

highlight the aircraft on the ATC
display.
The receiver part of the transponder

contains the circuitry to receive,
demodulate, amplify, and decode the
interrogation signal.
The transmitter part of the

transponder is comprised of the
circuits necessary to encode ,
modulate, amplify, and transmit the
coded reply signal.
The transponder also contains the

circuits required for checking the
validity of the received interrogation
signal and for monitoring the
integrity of the transponder.
DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINNG
ANTENNA
The antenna is an L-band (radio

frequency band from 390 to 1550
Mhz), monopole blade type.
It is usually mounted in an area of

the aircraft that will not be shielded
from interrogation. This prevents the
aircrafts identification from
disappearing from the controllers
radar screen.
DIGITIZER
The digitizer is a simple

converter that converts an
analog signal, representing
barometric altitude, to a digital
format.
The digitiser barometric
altitude can then be encoded
and shipped as part of the
reply signal.
This may be done inside the
barometric altimeter or
alternately in an air data unit.
ATC
GROUND STATION
PRIMARY SECONDARY RADAR

RADAR SURVIELLANCE SCREEN
RADAR
PRIMARY RADAR
The primary radar system works like

many other radar systems. A narrow RF
(radio frequency) type beam,
transmitted through a rotating antenna,
is reflected by targets in its path and
returned to the antenna.
By calculating the elapsed time

between transmission and reception of
the RF beam, the distance to the target
is determined.
The angle of the antenna is also noted

so that the bearing to the target can be
determined.
This information is displayed on a

2- dimensional radar screen.
SECONDARY SURVEILANCE RADAR
The SSR system interrogates the

aircraft about its identity and altitude by
transmitting two sets of pulses. The first
set is mode A and the second mode C.
Mode A pulses are 8 microseconds

apart and interrogates the transponder
about the identity of the aircraft.
Mode C pulses are 21 microseconds

apart and interrogate the transponder
about the aircraft altitude.
There are two other optional modes

(mode B and mode D) for transmitting
the aircraft identification and altitude.
RADAR SCREEN
The received signal from the primary

radar and SSR is electronically encoded
so that it can be displayed on a
controllers radar screen.
The type of radar screen is called a

planned position indicator (PPI).
The images on a PPI remain on the

screen until the next sweep of the
screen. In this way the controller does
not have to remember aircraft positions
between sweeps.
The ground controller selects the

identification codes he is interested in. If
the controller is not interested in a
particular aircraft its code will not be
displayed.
HOW ATC WORKS

The pilot selects an identification
code, or is instructed to select a
code by the air traffic controller.
The SSR system transmits a coded

interrogation signal (at 1030 Mhz) as
the primary radar detects the
aircraft.
The interrogation signal is received,

detected and decoded by the
airborne transponder.
The transponder then encodes and
transmits a set of reply signals.
(depending on the mode and code
selected)
The reply signal is the received,

decoded and displayed at the ATC
ground station.
VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE
VOR
INTRODUCTION
The VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
is a radio navigation system. VOR is
used for position-fixing, maintaining
course track and navigating along
established airways. Basically, it
provides the ability to follow a roadway
in the air.
VOR
This is a system used to determine the relative bearing from the aircraft to a
ground based transmitter (with respect to the aircraft centre line).
The VOR transmitter produces a carrier wave and a variable signal which is
shifted in phase.
The VOR navigation receiver detects the VOR radial signal and separates the
reference and variable signals. The phase of the variable signal is then compared
to the phase of the reference signal.
The phase difference is proportional to the radial angle from the VOR station. The
bearing is then determined from this phase difference. From the determined
bearing and the compass input to the indicator, aircraft heading and ground
station bearing are displayed on the indicator.
VOR
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
CONTROL UNIT VOR INDICATOR RECEIVER ANTENNA AIRCRAFT

COMMS
CONTROL UNIT
The control unit provides the
necessary control and switching
circuits for a VHF navigation
system.
The control unit may also
provide frequency selection for
VHF comms and distance
measuring equipment (DME).
The control unit selects the VHF
localiser frequency which
automatically selects the paired
UHF glideslope frequency and
DME frequency (if co-located
with a NAV system).
INDICATOR
There are two basic types of indicator used
in the VOR system. The RMI (Radio magnetic
indicator) and the HSI (Horizontal situation
indicator).
The RMI will have a needle rotating against a
rotating azimuth card, to indicate the bearing
to a ground station, relative to the nose of
the aircraft.
The HSI will have a movable course pointer,
a steering bar and a to-from arrow. The
steering bar indicates the direction to be
steered to bring the aircraft in track with the
beacon. If the steering bar is central then
that is the course to the beacon. The to-from
arrow indicates whether the aircraft is flying
towards or away from the beacon.
RECEIVER
The receiver contains the necessary
circuits for receiving, decoding and
processing the bearing information
from the transmitted VOR signal.
The receiver also contains self
monitoring circuits that confirm the
validity of the received signals and the
reliability of the bearing information
sent to the indicator.
Most VOR receivers also contain
circuits required to decode and
process lateral and/or vertical
guidance information from an ILS
ground facility.
It may also process DME and marker
beacon information.
ANTENNA
The typical antenna used by a VOR
navigation system is a bat-wing
type antenna, with an
omnidirectional, horizontally
polarised radiation pattern capable
of receiving VHF signals in the 108
to 118 MHz range.
COMMS
The ground station sends out an audio signal (morse code) every 30
seconds.
This identifying signal is sent through the aircraft comms system to

allow the crew to identify the VOR beacon that is being tracked.
SPKR
VOL 2 3
1
EMG 4
EXT
PHONES
VOR
GROUND STATIONS
VOR
ANTENNA
ANENNA
The VOR ground station
transmits continuously and is
capable of handling all aircraft
within the limits of the ground
station transmitter and the
capability of the aircrafts
receiver.
The ground station provides
voice transmission and an
identifying code to ensure that
the desired VOR station is being
monitored.
The identification signal (in
morse code) is a 2 or 3 letter
word repeated every 30
seconds.
HOW VOR WORKS

The pilot selects the frequency of a
ground station.
This is confirmed by its morse ident.
The phase difference between the
carrier wave and the variable signal is
computed and an output signal is sent
to the indicator.
Using charts the pilot can plot his
direction to the beacon. Using multiple
signals the pilot can triangulate the
position of the aircraft.
The pilot may use the bearing
information to fly to the ground station if
it is on the aircraft flight path.
DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINNG
DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT
DME
INTRODUCTION
Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a
system combining ground based and
airborne equipment to measure the distance
of the aircraft from a ground facility. DME is
used primarily for position fixing, enroute
separation, approach to an airport, avoiding
protected airspace, holding at a given
position or figuring ground speeds
DME
This is an airborne and ground based system, that measures the slant
range of the aircraft from the ground station. The DME frequency if not
manually selected, is automatically selected when an ILS/VOR
frequency is selected, (the DME station being co-located with the
ILS/VOR beacon).
Since the speed of a radio wave is a constant and known factor, the
amount of time the signal travels is proportional to the distance. The
airborne portion of the DME measures the amount of elapsed time and
converts this to the distance (slant range) between the aircraft and the
station.
DME indicators may also show time to station (TTS) and/ or computed
ground speed.
DME
AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
CONTROL UNIT TRANSMITTER/ INDICATOR ANTENNA

RECEIVER
CONTROL UNIT
The control unit provides the necessary switching circuits for the
airborne DME.
The control unit may also provide the frequency selection for VHF
comms.
Control units that provide frequency selection for more than the DME
automatically select the DME operating frequency for the NAV receiver
selected.
DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINIG
The transmitter section of the unit
contains all the necessary circuits to
generate, amplify and transmit the
interrogating pulse pairs.
The receiver section contains the

circuits required to receive, amplify
and decode the received reply
pulses.
This information is then sent to the

indicator.
DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMIING
INDICATOR
The distance indicator displays the
aircraft distance in nautical miles
from the ground station (slant
angle).
The indicator will also display, in the

form of a flag or dashes (on digital
indicators), as a warning that the
system is either malfunctioning or
not locked on to the reply signal.
On some types of indicators, the

information displayed also includes
a computed ground speed and the
time to station (TTS). These are only
accurate if the aircraft is flying on a
radial from the ground station.
ANTENNA
The antenna is a single L-band
(radio frequency band from
390 to 1,550 Mhz) transmit and
receive antenna with an omni-
directional pattern.
DME
GROUND STATION
ANTENNA RECEIVER TRANSMITTER

GROUND STATIONS
There are several different types of
ground station (eg VOR/DME, ILS/DME).
VOR/DME is DME located with a VOR

station.
ILS/DME is DME located with an ILS

station.
Ground stations are capable of handling

100 interrogations at one time. If more
than 100 aircraft interrogate the ground
station, the ground station limits its
sensitivity and responds to the strongest
interrogations.
HOW DME WORKS

The pilot selects an ILS/VOR frequency.
This automatically selects the DME
frequency paired with that frequency.
The receiver/transmitter of the airborne
DME transmits interrogating pulse pairs.
The ground facility receives these pulse
pairs, delays 50 microseconds, and then
transmits reply pulse pairs back to the
airborne DME.
The airborne receiver/transmitter
receives the reply pulse pairs and
verifies that they are valid.
Then it calculates the distance
This is sent to the indicator for the pilot
This cycle continues until the frequency
is changed or the aircraft is out of range.
AUTOPILOT
INTRODUCTION
The autopilot system, when selected,
reduces the workload of the pilot. It
controls and physically flies the
aircraft.
AUTOPILOT
The autopilot system comprises two main systems, the flight

director and the aircraft control system.
The flight director side of the system takes the selected

operational mode and, using the output of the autopilot
computer, displays the steering information required to fly
the aircraft.
The aircraft control system, takes the output from the

autopilot computer and, using a set of servos, moves the
aircraft controls, physically flying the aircraft in the mode
selected.
AUTOPILOT
AUTOPILOT
FLIGHT AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR HORIZONTAL SITUATION SERVOS PITCH/TURN

DIRECTOR COMPUTER INDICATOR INDICATOR CONTROL
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
The basic flight director uses modes
selected by the pilot to display steering
information. If the selected mode is
flashing, it is in standby, becoming
steady when it is operational.
HDG :- using the heading bug on the HSI
then the steering information from the
computer will be outputted to intercept
and fly along that heading .
NAV :- the nav selection will flash until
the selected VOR beacon is found. Then
the steering information from the
computer will be outputted, to intercept
APPR :- the appr selection will flash until
the selected ILS beacon is found. Then
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ALT :- when selected, will try and
maintain the aircraft at the altitude it
was selected. This is a barometric
altitude selection.
IAS :- will try to maintain the aircrafts

indicated air speed, by changing the
aircrafts attitude.
B/C :- back course, disabled on many

autopilot systems, allows the aircraft to
be flown at the ILS beacon from the
reverse direction. Only localiser
information is given. It will flash until
the selected ILS beacon is found then
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
ENG/DIS :- this switch engages or
disengages the autopilot. The green
triangle next to the switch indicates the
autopilot is engaged and the amber that
it is disengaged.
Trim UP/DOWN :- flashing amber lights

indicate when the autopilot is trimming
the aircraft either up or down. If the
system is run in flight director mode
only or if there is no trim output
function to a servo, then these lights
will come on (not flashing) to indicate
that a manual trim is required.
DIM :- this is a rotary switch to dim the

display lighting.
AUTOPILOT COMPUTER
The autopilot computer contains

the necessary circuits to take
information from navigation
sources, process it and then
produce steering information to
the flight instruments and
control servos.
If the system only produces

steering information to the flight
instruments, then it is a flight
director system, not an
autopilot.
ATTITUDE & DIRECTION
INDICATOR
The command bars on the
attitude & director indicator will
show the angle of bank required
to pick up the selected nav
source.
When in true autopilot, the

aircrafts attitude will match that
of the command bars.
The glideslope and the localiser

pointers will be displayed during
appr mode and indicate the
aircrafts position relative to the
ILS signal. In appr mode in a true
autopilot system it will fly down
the centre of the glidepath.
HOROZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR
This allows the heading to be flown by manually selecting the

heading bug to the desired heading.
SERVOS
There are various servos to control

the aircrafts flying control surfaces.
Aileron servo :- controls the aircraft
roll.
Elevator servo :- controls the
aircraft pitch.
Trim servo :- controls the aircraft
trim
Rudder servo :- controls the aircraft
rudder.
The servos can all be overridden by
manual inputs into the system. This
is achieved by having a capstan
fitted with a breakout torque.
PITCH/TURN CONROL
This allows pitch and turn information to
be manually inputted into the autopilot
system without disengaging the autopilot.
Pitch control :- this is used to command
the a pitch rate proportional to knob
displacement. Rotating the control up or
down produces a pitch command. The
aircraft will hold the pitch last selected. The
pitch control is spring loaded to centre,
giving a pitch hold mode.
Turn control :- this is used to command the
roll rate proportional to knob displacement.
Rotating the control left or right produces a
roll command. The aircraft will hold the roll
last selected. The pitch control is spring
loaded to centre, giving a roll hold mode.
HOW AUTOPILOT WORKS
The pilot selects the autopilot mode required.
The autopilot computer takes the relevant steering information or

nav source and computes the steering information required by the
servos to make the aircraft fly in the selected mode. It also sends
out the steering information to the aircraft instruments giving the
pilot a visual indication of the autopilot commands.
As the autopilot nears its desired track/ heading it automatically

reduces its rate of turn, so that it can intercept the course without
over swing.
DHC-6 TWIN OTTER AVIONICS
FOR DUMMIES

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ALL AIRCRAFT MUST HAVE CERTAIN INSTRUMENTS IN A SPECIFIC POSITION.

THIS IS CALLED THE BASIC T.

AIR SPEED ARTIFICIAL

FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT DATA

ATTITUDE AND DIRECTION

LANDING AND TAXI AIDS

INDEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINING

DEPENDENT POSITION DETERMINING

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

HORIZONTAL ATTITUDE &

GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING

Dynamic pressure is the difference in

GIVES A BAROMETRIC HEIGHT.

THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR USES

THIS IS ACHIEVED BY HAVING A

BY ALLOWING THE STATIC PRESSURE

BY ALLOWING THE STATIC PRESSURE

AIRCRAFT COMPASS SYSTEM

The standby or E2B compass is a direct

This consists of a 3 spoke device on a

A coil mounted on the hub of the spokes is

A errors (aircraft magnetic field errors) are

If a Vertical Gyro is used as a heading

It could drift a maximum of 360 degrees

Normally, the directional gyro unit

This allows the compass

The HSI compass card is driven by the output

The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), compass RADIO

No. 2 HSI and No. 1 RMI are driven by the No. 2

The Attitude & Direction indicator, displays a

The pilots and co-pilots indicators are

A symbolic aircraft reference bar in the centre

A Dc-powered standby indicator

Power for the unit is obtained

The turn and slip indicator

Each instrument has a power

The instrument landing system (ILS) is a

ILS is used to provide steering information to

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.

An ILS facility provides guidance to an aircraft by providing signals that

Localiser and glideslope frequencies are paired, selection of the

CONTROL UNIT ILS INDICATOR RECEIVER ANTENNA AIRCRAFT

The control unit provides the

The ILS signals will produce steering

If the signal is unreliable a flag will

The receiver also contains self monitoring

Most VOR receivers also contain circuits

It may also process DME and marker beacon

A horizontally polarised, omnidirectional

Glideslope operation requires a folded

The marker beacon typically uses a loop

This identifying signal is sent through the aircraft comms system to

LOCALISER GLIDESLOPE MARKER BEACON

This is located at the far (departure)

This is located at the near end of the

It operates between 328.6 and 335.4

The correct frequency is automatically

The glideslope signal is radiated to

The outer marker transmits a 400Hz audio

The middle marker transmits a 1300Hz

The airways marker transmits a 3000Hz

The pilot selects the frequency of an ILS ground station.

The matched glideslope frequency is automatically selected.