CHAPTER 01 The Foundation of Chemistry

CHAPTER ONE
The Foundations of Chemistry

Chapter Outline
1. Matter and Energy
2. States of Matter
3. Chemical and Physical Properties
4. Chemical and Physical Changes
5. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and
Elements
6. Measurements in Chemistry
7. Units of Measurement
2
Chapter Outline
8. Use of Numbers
9. The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional
Analysis)
10. Percentage
11. Density and Specific Gravity
12. Heat and Temperature
13. Heat Transfer and the Measurement of
Heat
3
Matter and Energy - Vocabulary
Chemistry
Science that describes matter its properties, the
changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that
accompany those processes
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Energy
The capacity to do work or transfer heat.
Scientific (natural) law
A general statement based the observed behavior of
matter to which no exceptions are known.
4
Natural Laws
Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of Conservation of Energy
Law of Conservation of Mass-Energy
Einsteins Relativity
E=mc2
5
Scientific Method
Observation
Hypothesis
Observation or experiment
Theory
Observation or experiment
Law
6
States of Matter
Solids
7
States of Matter
Solids
Liquids
8
States of Matter
Solids
Liquids
Gases
9
States of Matter
Change States
heating
cooling
10
States of Matter
Illustration of changes in state
requires energy
11
Chemical and Physical Properties
Chemical Properties - chemical changes
rusting or oxidation
chemical reactions
Physical Properties - physical changes
changes of state
density, color, solubility
Extensive Properties - depend on quantity
Intensive Properties - do not depend on
quantity
12
Mixtures, Substances,
Compounds, and Elements
Substance
matter in which all samples have identical
composition and properties
Elements
substances that cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances via chemical reactions
Elemental symbols
found on periodic chart
13
14
Compounds
substances composed of two or more
elements in a definite ratio by mass
can be decomposed into the constituent
elements
Water is a compound that can be decomposed
into simpler substances hydrogen and oxygen
15
16
Mixtures
composed of two or more substances
homogeneous mixtures
heterogeneous mixtures
17
Measurements in Chemistry
Quantity Unit Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
current ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amt. substance mole mol
18
Metric Prefixes
Name Symbol Multiplier

mega M 106
kilo k 103
deka da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
19
Metric Prefixes
Name Symbol Multiplier
milli m 10-3
micro 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
20
Units of Measurement
Definitions
Mass
measure of the quantity of matter in a

body
Weight
measure of the gravitational attraction
for a body
21
Units of Measurement
Common Conversion Factors
Length
1 m = 39.37 inches
2.54 cm = 1 inch
Volume
1 liter = 1.06 qt
1 qt = 0.946 liter
See Table 1-7 for more conversion factors
22
Use of Numbers
Exact numbers
1 dozen = 12 things for example
Accuracy
how closely measured values agree with
the correct value
Precision
how closely individual measurements agree
with each other
23
Use of Numbers
Significant figures
digits believed to be correct by the person
making the measurement
Measure a mile with a 6 inch ruler vs.
surveying equipment
Exact numbers have an infinite number
of significant figures
12.000000000000000 = 1 dozen
because it is an exact number
24
Use of Numbers
Significant Figures - Rules
Leading zeroes are never significant
0.000357 has three significant figures
Trailing zeroes may be significant
must specify significance by how the number
is written
1300 nails - counted or weighed?
Use scientific notation to remove doubt
2.40 x 103 has ? significant figures
25
Use of Numbers
Scientific notation for logarithms

take the log of 2.40 x 103
log(2.40 x 103) = 3.380
How many significant figures?
Imbedded zeroes are always significant
3.0604 has five significant figures
26
Use of Numbers
Piece of Black Paper with rulers beside the edges
27
Use of Numbers
Piece of Paper Side B enlarged
How long is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?
28
Use of Numbers
Piece of Paper Side A enlarged
How wide is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?
29
Use of Numbers
Determine the area of the piece of black
paper using your measured values.
Compare your answer with your classmates.
Where do your answers differ in the numbers?
Significant figures rules for multiplication
and division must help us determine where
answers would differ.
30
Use of Numbers
Multiplication & Division rule
Easier of the two rules
Product has the smallest number of
significant figures of multipliers
31
Use of Numbers
4.242
x 1.23
5.21766
round off to 5.22
32
Use of Numbers
4.242 2.7832
x 1.23 x 1.4
5.21766 3.89648
round off to 5.22 round off to 3.9
33
Use of Numbers
Determine the perimeter of the piece of
black paper using your measured values.
Compare your answer with your classmates.
Where do your answers differ in the numbers?
Significant figures rules for addition and
subtraction must help us determine where
answers would differ.
34
Use of Numbers
Addition & Subtraction rule
More subtle than the multiplication rule
Answer contains smallest decimal place of the
addends.
35
Use of Numbers
addends.
3.6923
1.234
2. 0 2
6.9463
round off to 6.95
36
Use of Numbers
addends.
3.6923
8.7937
1.234
2. 0 2 2.123
6.9463 6.6707
round off to 6.95 round off to 6.671
37
The Unit Factor Method
Simple but important method to get
correct answers in word problems.
Method to change from one set of units
to another.
Visual illustration of the idea.
38
Change from a to a by obeying the
following rules.
39
following rules.
1. Must use colored fractions.
40
following rules.
1. Must use colored fractions.
2. The box on top of the fraction must be
the same color as the next fractions
bottom box.
41
Fractions to choose from

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
42
O
R
R

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
43
O B
R
R O

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
44
O B B
R B
R O B

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
45
O B B
R B
R O B

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
46
O B B
R B
R O B

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
47
O B B
R B
R O B

R O B O B B
O R O B B B
48
colored fractions represent unit factors

1 ft 12 in
1 ft = 12 in becomes 12 in or 1 ft
Example 1-1: Express 9.32 yards in
millimeters.
49
9.32 yd ? mm
3ft
9.32 yd ( )
1yd
50
9.32 yd ? mm
3ft 12in
9.32 yd ( ) ( )
1yd 1ft
51
9.32 yd ? mm
3ft 12in 2.54cm
9.32 yd ( )( )( )
1yd 1ft 1in
52
9.32 yd ? mm
3ft 12in 2.54cm 10mm
9.32 yd ( )( )( )( ) 8.52 103 mm
1yd 1ft 1in 1cm
53
9.32 yd ? mm
3ft 12in 2.54cm 10mm
9.32 yd ( )( )( )( ) 8.52 103 mm
1yd 1ft 1in 1cm
O B B T
R T
R O B B
54
Example 1-2: Express 627 milliliters in
gallons.
You do it!
55
Example 1-2. Express 627 milliliters in
gallons.
? gal 627 mL
1L 1.06qt 1gal
? gal 627 mL ( )( )( )
1000mL 1L 4qt
? gal 0.166155 gal 0.166 gal
56
Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons
in grams.
You do it!
57
Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons
in grams.
? g 3.50 tons
2000 lb
? g 3.50 tons
ton
2000 lb 454 g
? g 3.50 tons
ton lb
2000 lb 454 g
? g 3.50 tons 3178000 g
ton lb
2000 lb 454 g
? g 3.50 tons 3.18 x 10 g
6
ton lb
58
Area is two dimensional thus units must
be in squared terms.
Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in
ft2.
59
ft2.
1 in
? ft 2.61 10 cm (
2 4 2
)
2.54 cm
common mistake
60
ft2.
1 in
? ft 2.61 10 cm (
2 4 2
)
2.54 cm
O
R
P
61
ft2.
1 in
? ft 2.6110 cm (
2 4 2
) 2
2.54 cm
O
R
R
62
ft2.
1 in 2 1 ft 2
? ft 2.61 10 cm (
2 4 2
) ( )
2.54 cm 12 in
63
ft2.
1in 2 1ft
? ft 2.6110 cm (
2 4 2
) ( ) 2
2.54cm 12in
28.09380619 ft 28.1 ft
2 2
64
Volume is three dimensional thus units
must be in cubic terms.
Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.
You do it!
65
Volume is three dimensional thus units
must be in cubic terms.
Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.
12 in 3 2.54 cm 3
? cm 2.61 ft (
3 3
) ( )
1 ft 1 in
73906.9696 cm 7.39 10 cm
3 4 3
66
Percentage
Percentage is the parts per hundred of
a sample.
Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of ore
yields 29.5 g of iron. What is the
percent of iron in the ore?
You do it!
67
Percentage
Percentage is the parts per hundred of a
sample.
Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of ore yields 29.5
g of iron. What is the percent of iron in the
ore?
grams of iron
? % iron x 100%
grams of ore
29.5 g Fe
x 100%
335 g ore
8.81% 68
Density and Specific Gravity
density = mass/volume
What is density?
Why does ice float in liquid water?
69
density = mass/volume
What is density?
Why does ice float in liquid water?
H C
H
H
H H2O(l) H2O(s) H
H C
H H
70
Example 1-7: Calculate the density of a
substance if 742 grams of it occupies
97.3 cm3.
1 cm 1 mL 97.3 cm 97.3 mL
3 3
density m
V
71
Example 1-7: Calculate the density of a
substance if 742 grams of it occupies
97.3 cm3.
1 cm 1 mL 97.3 cm 97.3 mL
3 3
density m
V
density 742 g
97.3 mL
density 7.63 g/mL
72
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g
of a corrosive liquid for a reaction.
What volume do you need?
liquids density = 1.32 g/mL
You do it!
73
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g
of a corrosive liquid for a reaction.
What volume do you need?
m m
density V
V density
74
Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g of
a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What
volume do you need?
m m
density V
V density
125 g
V 94.7 mL
1.32 g mL 75
density (substance )
Specific Gravity
density ( water )
Waters density is essentially 1.00 at room T.
Thus the specific gravity of a substance is
very nearly equal to its density.
Specific gravity has no units.
76
Example 1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of chromium is
dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains
5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32
mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?
You do it
77
Example1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of chromium is
Volume of Cr 9.32 mL - 5.00 mL
4.32 mL
31.10 g
density of Cr
4.32 mL
78
Example1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of chromium is
31.10 g
density of Cr
4.32 mL
7.19907 g 7.20 g
mL mL
7.20 g mL
Specific Gravity of Cr g
7.20
1.00 mL
79
Example 1-10: A concentrated hydrochloric acid
solution is 36.31% HCl and 63.69% water by
mass. The specific gravity of the solution is
1.185. What mass of pure HCl is contained in
175 mL of this solution?
You do it!
80
Some Possible Unit Factors from this Problem
36.31 g HCl 36.31 g HCl 63.69 g H 2 O
or or
63.69 g H 2 O 100.00 g solution 100.00 g solution
81
Specific Gravity 1.185 from problem
g g
density 1.185 1185
mL L
82
Specific Gravity 1.185
g g
density 1.185 1185
mL L
1.185 g sol' n 36.31 g HCl
? g HCl 175 mL sol' n
1 mL 100.00 g solution
75.3 g HCl
83
Heat and Temperature
Heat and Temperature are not the same thing
T is a measure of the intensity of heat in a body
3 common temperature scales - all use water as
a reference
84
are not the same thing
T is a measure of the
intensity of heat in a
body
3 common temperature
scales - all use water as
a reference
85
MP water BP water
Fahrenheit 32 oF 212 oF
Celsius 0.0 oC 100 cC
Kelvin 273 K 373 K
86
Relationships of the Three
Temperature Scales
Kelvin and Centigrade Relationsh ips
K C 273
o
or
o
C K 273
87
Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit and Centigrade Relationsh ips
180 18 9
1.8
100 10 5
88
Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit and Centigrade Relationsh ips
180 18 9
1.8
100 10 5
o
F 1.8 o C 32
or
F 32
o
o
C
1.8
89
Temperature Scales
Easy method to remember how to
convert from Centigrade to Fahrenheit.
1. Double the Centigrade temperature.
2. Subtract 10% of the doubled number.
3. Add 32.
90
Example 1-11: Convert 211oF to
degrees Celsius.
F 32
o
o
C
1.8
211 32
o
C
1.8
91
Example 1-12: Express 548 K in Celsius
degrees.
o
C K 273
o
C 548 273
o
C 275
92
Heat Transfer and The
Measurement of Heat
SI unit J (Joule)
calorie
1 calorie = 4.184 J
English unit = BTU
Specific Heat
amount of heat required to raise the T of 1g
of a substance by 1oC
units = J/goC
93
Heat Transfer and the
Measurement of Heat
Heat capacity
amount of heat required to raise the T of 1
mole of a substance by 1oC
units = J/mol oC
Example 1-13: Calculate the amt. of
heat to raise T of 200 g of water from
10.0oC to 55.0oC
94
Measurement of Heat
Heat transfer equation
necessary to calculate amounts of heat
amount of heat = amount of substance x
specific heat x DT
q m C DT
95
Measurement of Heat
amount of heat = amount substance x
specific heat x DT
q m C DT
4.184 J
? J 200 g H 2 O (55.0 C 10.0 C)
o o
1 g H 2O
96
Measurement of Heat
amount of heat = amount substance x
specific heat x DT
q m C DT
4.184 J
? J 200 g H 2 O (55.0 o C 10.0o C)
1 g H 2O
3.76 10 4 J or 37.6 kJ
97
Measurement of Heat
Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of
heat to raise the temperature of 200.0
grams of mercury from 10.0oC to 55oC.
Specific heat for Hg is 0.138 J/g oC.
You do it!
98
Measurement of Heat
Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of heat
to raise T of 200 g of Hg from 10.0oC to
55oC. Specific heat for Hg is 0.138 J/g oC.
q m C DT
0.138 J
? J 200 g Hg o
(55.0 o
C 10.0 o
C)
(1 g Hg) C
1.24 kJ
Requires 30.3 times more heat for water
4.184 is 30.3 times greater than 0.138
99
Synthesis Question
It has been estimated that 1.0 g of seawater

contains 4.0 pg of Au. The total mass of
seawater in the oceans is 1.6x1012 Tg, If all of
the gold in the oceans were extracted and
spread evenly across the state of Georgia,
which has a land area of 58,910 mile2, how tall,
in feet, would the pile of Au be?
Density of Au is 19.3 g/cm3. 1.0 Tg = 1012g.
100
Synthesis Question
12
10 g
(1.6 10 Tg) (
12
) 1.6 10 24 g of H 2 O
Tg
12
4.0 10 g Au
(1.6 10 g of H 2 O)(
24
) 6.4 1012 g Au
g of H 2 O
101
Synthesis Question
12
10 g
(1.6 10 Tg) (
12
) 1.6 10 24 g of H 2 O
Tg
12
4.0 10 g Au
(1.6 10 g of H 2 O)(
24
) 6.4 1012 g Au
g of H 2 O

3
1cm
6.4 10 g Au
12
3.3 1011 cm 3 Au
19.3 g Au
5280 ft 12 in 2.54 cm
1 mile 160,934 cm
1 mile 1 ft 1 in
160,934 cm 3 1 mile 3 4.16 1015 cm 3 1 mile 3
102
Synthesis Question
1 mile 3

(3.3 10 cm Au)
11 3

3
7.96 10 5
mile 3
4.16 1015
cm
7.96 10 5 mile 3 5280 ft
2
(1.35 10 9
mile)

7.13 10 6
ft
58,910 mile 1 mile
103
Group Activity
On a typical day, a hurricane expends the
energy equivalent to the explosion of two
thermonuclear weapons. A thermonuclear
weapon has the explosive power of 1.0 Mton
of nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin generates 7.3
kJ of explosive power per gram of
nitroglycerin. The hurricanes energy comes
from the evaporation of water that requires
2.3 kJ per gram of water evaporated. How
many gallons of water does a hurricane
evaporate per day?
104
End of Chapter 1
105

CHAPTER 01 The Foundation of Chemistry

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CHAPTER 01 The Foundation of Chemistry

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CHAPTER ONE

The Foundations of Chemistry

Name Symbol Multiplier

measure of the quantity of matter in a

Scientific notation for logarithms

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

Fractions to choose from

colored fractions represent unit factors

It has been estimated that 1.0 g of seawater

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