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Powertrain &

Calibration 101
John Bucknell
DaimlerChrysler
Powertrain Systems Engineering

December 4, 2006
Powertrain & Calibration Topics
Background
Powertrain terms
Thermodynamics
Mechanical
Design
Combustion
Architecture
Cylinder Filling &
Emptying
Aerodynamics
Calibration
Spark & Fuel
Transients &
Drivability
What is a Powertrain?

Engine that converts thermal energy to


mechanical work
Particularly, the architecture comprising all the
subsystems required to convert this energy to
work
Sometimes extends to drivetrain, which
connects powertrain to end-user of power
Characteristics of Internal
Combustion Heat Engines
High energy density of fuel leads to high power
to weight ratio, especially when combusting with
atmospheric oxygen
External combustion has losses due to multiple
inefficiencies (primarily heat loss from
condensing of working fluid), internal
combustion has less inefficiencies
Heat engines use working fluids which is the
simplest of all energy conversion methods
Reciprocating Internal
Combustion Heat Engines
Characteristics
Slider-crank mechanism has high mechanical
efficiency (piston skirt rubbing is source of 50-
60% of all firing friction)
Piston-cylinder mechanism has high single-
stage compression ratio capability leads to
high thermal efficiency capability
Fair to poor air pump, limiting power potential
without additional mechanisms
Reciprocating Engine Terms
Vc = Clearance Volume
Vd = Displacement or Swept Volume
Vt = Total Volume
TC or TDC =
Top or Top Dead Center Position
BC or BDC =
Bottom or Bottom Dead Center
Position
Compression Ratio (CR)
Vd Vc
CR
Vc
Further explanation of aspects of Compression Ratio
Reciprocating
Engines
Most layouts created
during second World
War as aircraft
manufacturers
struggled to make the
least-compromised
installation
Thermodynamics

Otto Cycle
Diesel Cycle
Throttled Cycle
Supercharged Cycle

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.


Thermodynamic Terms
MEP Mean Effective Pressure
Average cylinder pressure over measuring period

Torque Normalized to Engine Displacement (VD)

BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure


4 Torque(Nm) 48 Torque(ftlb)
BMEP (kPa) BMEP (psi)
VD (liter ) VD (cu.in.)
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
MEP of Compression and Expansion Strokes
PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
MEP of Exhaust and Intake Strokes
FFMEP Firing Friction Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = IMEP PMEP FFMEP


Thermodynamic Terms continued

Work =
P dV

Power = Work/Unit Time


Work Cycles / Second
Power
Re volutions / Cycle

Specific Power Power per unit, typically


displacement or weight
Pressure/Volume Diagram Engineering
tool to graph cylinder pressure
Indicated Work

TDC BDC

Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes


Pumping Work

TDC BDC

Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes


History of Internal Combustion
1878 Niklaus Otto built
first successful four
stroke engine
1885 Gottlieb Daimler
built first high-speed
four stroke engine
1878 saw Sir Dougald
Clerk complete first two-
stroke engine (simplified
1891 Panhard-Levassor vehicle
by Joseph Day in 1891) with front engine built under
Daimler license
Energy Distribution
in Passenger Car Engines

Source: SAE 2000-01-2902 (Ricardo)


Using Exhaust Energy
Highest expansion
ratio recovers most
thermal energy
Turbines can recover
heat energy left over
from gas exchange
Energy can be used to
drive turbo-
compressor or fed
back into crank train

Source: Advanced Engine Technology


Supercharging
Increases specific
output by increasing
charge density into
reciprocator
Many methods of
implementation, cost
usually only limiting
factor

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.


Mechanical Design
Two Valve Valvetrain

Pushrod OHV (Type 5) HEMI 2-Valve (Type 5) SOHC 2-Valve (Type 2)


Four Valve Valvetrain

DOHC 4-Valve (Type 2)


SOHC 4-Valve (Type 3)

DOHC 4-Valve (Type 1)


Desmodromic
Valvetrain
Specific Power =
f(Air Flow, Thermal Efficiency)
Air flow is an easier variable to
change than thermal efficiency
90% of restriction of induction
system occurs in cylinder head
Cylinder head layouts that
allow the greatest airflow will
have highest specific power
potential
Peak flow from poppet valve
engines primarily a function of
total valve area
More/larger valves equals
greater valve area
Combustion Terms
Brake Power Power measured by the absorber
(brake) at the crankshaft
BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
LBT Fuelling - Lean Best Torque
Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda
Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling
due to component temperature limit
Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
Combustion Terms continued
Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to TDC
for start of combustion event (ignition)
MBT Spark Maximum Brake Torque Spark
Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque
Burn Rate Speed of Combustion
Expressed as a fraction of total heat released versus
crank degrees
MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure
Absolute not Gauge (does not reference barometer)
Combustion Terms continued
Knock Autoignition of end-gasses in combustion
chamber, causing extreme rates of pressure rise.
Knock Limit Spark - Maximum Spark Allowed due to
Knock can be higher or lower than MBT
Pre-Ignition Autoignition of mixture prior to spark
timing, typically due to high temperatures of
components
Combustion Stability Cycle to cycle variation in
burn rate, trapped mass, location of peak pressure, etc.
The lower the variation the better the stability.
Engine Architecture
Influence on Performance
Intake & Exhaust Manifold Tuning
Cylinder Filling & Emptying
Momentum
Pressure Wave
Aerodynamics
Flow Separation
Wall Friction
Junctions & Bends
Induction Restriction
Exhaust Restriction (Backpressure)
Compression Ratio
Valve Events
Intake Tuning
for WOT Performance
Intake manifolds have ducts (runners)
that tune at frequencies corresponding to
engine speed, like an organ pipe
Longer runners tune at lower frequencies
Shorter runners tune at higher frequencies
Tuning increases local pressure at intake
valve thereby increasing flow rate
Duct diameter is a trade-off between
velocity and wall friction of passing charge
Exhaust Tuning
for WOT Performance
Exhaust manifolds tune just as intake
manifolds do, but since no fresh charge is
being introduced as a result not as much
impact on volumetric efficiency (~8%
maximum for headers)
Catalyst performance usually limits
production exhaust systems that flow
acceptably with little to no tuning
Tuned Headers
Tuned Headers WOT IMEP Exhaust Manifold Comparison
4-2-1 Tubular Header vs 4-1 Close Coupled Cast
generally do not 1500 0

appear on production 1450 -15

engines due to the 1400 -30

impairment to catalyst
IMEP (kPa)/PMEP (kPa)
1350 -45

light-off performance 1300 -60

(usually a minimum of 1250 -75

150% additional
1200 -90

distance for cold-start


1150 -105

1100 -120

exhaust heat to be 1050 -135

lost). Performance 1000


1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400
-150

can be enhanced by IMEP 4-2-1 1044.1 1122.8 1188.5 1226.6 1269.2 1290.5 1337.9 1390.1 1445.7 1427 1445.8 1435.4 1411.7 1337.9

3-8% across 60% of


IMEP 4-1 Cast 1102.5 1162.2 1225.5 1252.3 1248 1262.4 1320.9 1403.6 1403.5 1406.3 1398 1367.2 1294.6
PMEP 4-2-1 -5.3 -9.7 -14.2 -19.7 -23.0 -29.9 -38.4 -52.3 -64.0 -78.5 -90.8 -107.9 -122.8 -136.2

the operating range.


PMEP 4-1 Cast -12.5 -16.8 -20.8 -26.1 -32.0 -40.3 -54.0 -68.6 -81.0 -89.0 -99.8 -111.5 -119.5
Engine Speed (rpm)
Momentum Effects
Pressure loss influences dictate that duct
diameter be as large as possible for minimum
friction
Increasing charge momentum enhances cylinder
filling by extending induction process past
unsteady direct energy transfer of induction
stroke (ie piston motion)
Decreasing duct diameter increases available
kinetic energy for a given mass flux
Therefore duct diameter is a trade-off between
velocity and wall friction of passing charge
Pressure Wave Effects
Induction process and exhaust blowdown
both cause pressure pulsations
Abrupt changes of increased cross-section
in the path of a pressure wave will reflect
a wave of opposite magnitude back down
the path of the wave
Closed-ended ducts reflect pressure waves
directly, therefore a wave will echo with
same amplitude
Pressure Wave Effects cont
Friction decreases energy of pressure
waves, therefore the 1st order reflection is
the strongest but up to 5th order have
been utilized to good effect in high speed
engines (thus active runners in F1 in Y2K)
Plenums also resonate and through
superposition increase the amplitude of
pressure waves in runners small impact
relative to runner geometry
Effects of Intake Runner Geometry
Tuning in Production I4 Engine

470

450
Air Mass per Cylinder (mg)

430

410

390

370

350
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400

Trapped Mass 372 381 373 421 428 402 397 430 454 453 458 460 431 401
Engine Speed (rpm)
Aerodynamics
Losses due to poor aerodynamics can be
equal in magnitude to the gains from
pressure wave tuning
Often the dominant factory in poorly
performing OE components
If properly designed, flow of a single-entry
intake manifold can approach 98% of an
ideal entrance on a cylinder head port
(steady state on a flow bench)
Aerodynamics cont
Flow Separation
Literally same phenomenon as stall in wing
elements pressure in free stream insufficient
to push flow along wall of short side radius
Recirculation pushes flow away from wall,
thereby reducing effective cross-section: so-
called vena contracta
Simple guidelines can prevent flow separation
in ducts studies performed by NACA in the
1930s empirically established the best duct
configurations
Aerodynamics cont
Wall Friction
Surface finish of ducts need to be as smooth
as possible to prevent tripping of flow on a
macro level
Junctions & Bends
Everything from your fluid dynamics textbook
applies
Radiused inlets and free-standing pipe outlets
Minimize number of bends

Avoid S bends if at all possible


Induction Restriction
Air cleaner and intake manifolds provide
some resistance to incoming charge
Power loss related to restriction almost
directly a function of ratio between
manifold pressure (plenum pressure
upstream of runners) and atmospheric
Exhaust Restriction
Back Pressure Effects on Peak Power - 2.0L SOHC R/T
152

151

150
Corrected Power (c Bhp)

149

148

147

146

145
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Back Pressure (in-Hg)

Peak Power Back Bhp


Compression Ratio
The highest possible compression ratio is always
the design point, as higher will always be more
thermally efficient with better idle quality
Knock limits compression ratio because of
combustion stability issues at low engine speed
due to necessary spark retard
Most engines are designed with higher
compression than is best for low speed
combustion stability because of the associated
part-load BSFC benefits and high speed power
Valve Events
Valve events define how an engine breathes all
the time, and so are an important aspect of low
load as well as high load performance
Valve events also effectively define compression
& expansion ratio, as compression will not
begin until the piston-cylinder mechanism is
sealed same with expansion
Valve Event
Timing Diagram
Spider Plot -
Describes timing points
for valve events with
respect to Crank
Position
Cam Centerline -
Peak Valve Lift with
respect to TDC in
Crank Degrees
Valve Events for Power
Maximize Trapping Efficiency
Intake closing that is best compromise between compression
stroke back flow and induction momentum (retard with
increasing engine speed)
Early intake closing usefulness limited at low engine speed
due to knock limit
Early intake opening will impart some exhaust blowdown or
pressure wave tuning momentum to intake charge
Maximize Thermal Efficiency
Earliest intake closing to maximize compression ratio for
best burn rate (optimum is instantaneous after TDC)
Latest exhaust opening to maximize expansion ratio for best
use of heat energy and lowest EGT (least thermal protection
enrichment beyond LBT)
Valve Events for Power
Minimize Flow Loss
Achieve maximum valve lift (max flow usually at
L/D > 0.25-0.3) as long as possible (square lift
curves are optimum for poppet valves)
Minimize Exhaust Pumping Work
Earliest exhaust opening that blows down cylinder
pressure to backpressure levels before exhaust
stroke (advance with increasing engine speed)
Earliest exhaust closing that avoids recompression
spike (retard with increasing engine speed)
Centerline Effects On Torque
570

560

550

540

530

520

510
Torque (ft-lbs)

500

490

480

470

460

450

440

430

420
1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600
Engine Speed (rpm)

115 degree centerline 120 degree centerline 124 degree centerline


Engine Power and BSFC vs Engine Speed
2006 2.4L WE BSFC MAP (g/kW-h)

1200

1100
250 110
120
100
1000
275
90
900 80
70 300
60
800
240
50

700 40
BMEP SI [kPa]

30
600
250

500

20
400
275

300
300

10 350
200
400
450
500
100 600
700

0
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200 5600 6000 6400

d Speed [rpm]
Summary
Components Relative Impact on
Performance
1. Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area
2. Valve Events
3. Intake Manifold Runner Geometry
4. Compression Ratio
5. Exhaust Header Geometry
6. Exhaust Restriction
7. Air Cleaner Restriction
Powertrain Closing Remarks
Powertrain is compromise
Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate
devices the only route to more power is
increased engine speed, more valve area or
increased charge density
More speed, charge density or valve area are
expensive or difficult to develop therefore
minimizing losses is the most efficient path within
existing engine architectures
Highest average power during a vehicle
acceleration is fastest peak power values dont
win races
Break
Calibration
What is it?
Optimizing the control system (once hardware is
finalized) for drivability, durability & emissions
Its just spark and fuel how hard could it be?
Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Combustion and
Control Theory all play in
Fortunately race engines have no emissions
constraints and use race fuel (usually eliminates any
knock) therefore are relatively easy to calibrate
Calibration Terms
Stoichiometry Chemically correct ratio of fuel to air
for combustion
F/A Fuel/Air Ratio
Mass ratio of mixture, a determination of richness or
leanness. Stoichiometry = 0.0688-0.0696 FA
Lambda Excess Air Ratio
Stoichiometry = 1.0 Lambda
Rich F/A F/A greater than Stoichiometry
Rich < 1.0 Lambda
Lean F/A F/A less than Stoichiometry
Lean > 1.0 Lambda
Calibration Terms continued
Brake Power Power measured by the absorber
(brake) at the crankshaft
BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
LBT Fuelling Lean Best Torque
Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda
Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling
due to exhaust component temperature limit
Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
Calibration Terms continued
Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to TDC
for start of combustion event (ignition)
MBT Spark - Maximum Brake Torque
Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque
Burn Rate Speed of Combustion
Expressed as a fraction of total heat released versus
crank degrees
MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure
Absolute not Gauge (which references barometer)
Lean Best Torque Fuel Air Sweeps
102%

100%

98%

96%
Torque Delta Factor From LBT

94%

92%

90%

88%
Spark Held Constant During Fuel Air Sw eep
86%

84%

82%

80%

78%

76%
0.0660 0.0690 0.0720 0.0750 0.0780 0.0810 0.0840 0.0870 0.0900 0.0930 0.0960 0.0990 0.1020 0.1050 0.1080 0.1110
F/A FN

1856 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 56 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 84 kPa MAP
4544 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 2688 RPM, 70 kPa MAP
Spark Advance vs Torque
102%

100%

98%

96%
Torque Delta from MBT

94%

92%

90%

88%

86%

84%
-22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Delta Spark Advance From MBT
Control System Types
Alpha-N
Engine Speed & Throttle Angle
Speed-Density
Engine Speed and MAP/ACT
MAF
Engine Speed and MAF
Alpha-N
Fuel and spark maps are based on
throttle angle which is very non-linear
and requires complete mapping of
engine
Good throttle response once dialed in
Density compensation (altitude and
temperature) is usually absent needs to
be recalibrated every time car goes out
Speed-Density
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAP
density of charge is a strong function of
pressure, corrected by air temp and coolant
temp therefore air flow is simple to calculate
Less time-intensive than Alpha-N, once calibrated
is good most common type of control
Needs less mapping can do WOT line and mid-
map then curve-fit air flow (spark needs a little
more in-depth for optimal control)
MAF
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAF
airflow measured directly
MAF sensor isnt the most robust device
Pressure pulses confuse signal, each application has to
be mapped with secondary damped MAF sensor (usually
a 55 gallon drum inline)
Least noisy signal is usually at air cleaner so separate
transport delay controls need to be calibrated for
transients and leaks need to be absolutely eliminated
Boosted applications usually add a MAP as well
Control System Components
Fuel System
Injectors, Fuel pump & Regulator
Basic Sensors
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) or Mass Air
Flow (MAF)
Crank Position (Rpm & TDC)
Cam Position (Sync)
Air Charge Temp (ACT)
Engine Coolant Temp (ECT)
Knock Sensor
Lamda Sensor
Fuel System
Injectors
Volumetric flow rate solenoids, linear relationship
between pulsewidth and flow for given pressure delta Pulsewidth + Battery Offset
Battery offset is time necessary to open and close Pulsewidth
solenoid time is fixed for any voltage
Duty cycle is injector on time itll go static above 95%

Pintle Height
Bernoulli relationship for different pressure deltas
allowing differing flow rates for a given injector
High impedance injectors have lower dynamic range
and lower amperage and thus less heat in controller
Fuel Pump & Regulator
Pressure needs to be sufficiently high to prevent vapour
lock (>4bar) and low enough that engine can idle
V P
In-tank regulation adds least heat but has line-loss as
flow rate increases, ie fuel pressure changes with flow

2
2
Manifold-referenced regulation can help injectors
achieve higher flow rates at elevated boost or lower
V P
1
flows at low vacuum making calibration more 1
complicated
Bernoulli Effect of Fuel Pressure
Sensors
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
A variable-resistance diaphragm with perfect vacuum on one side
and manifold pressure on other
Mass Air Flow (MAF)
A heating element followed by a temperature-sensitive element.
Heated element is maintained at a constant temperature and
based upon the measured downstream temperature the mass flow
rate can be determined
Crank Position
High resolution for spark advance, less-so for crank speed and
with once-per-rev can indicate TDC
Cam Position
Low resolution for syncronization for sequential fuel injection and
individual cylinder spark
Air Charge Temp and Engine Coolant Temp
Thermistors used for air density correction and startup enrichment
Sensors, cont
Knock Sensor
A piezoelectric load cell that measures structural vibration.
Knock is a pressure wave that travels at local sonic velocity and
rings at a frequency that is a function of bore diameter
(typically between 14-18kHz). When the structure of the
engine (typically the block) is hit with this pressure wave it rings
as well, but at a frequency that is a function of the structure (ie
materials and geometry). A FFT analysis of different mounting
positions (nodes not anti-nodes) is necessary to determine the
center frequency to listen for knock (which is measured via in-
cylinder pressure measurements) without picking up other
structure-borne noise.
Sensors, cont
Lamda Sensor (EGO)
Compares ambient air to
exhaust oxygen content
(partial pressure of oxygen).
Sensor output is essentially
binary (only indicates rich or
lean of stoichiometry).
Wide-band Lamda Sensor EGO Schematic
(UEGO)
Compares partial pressure of
oxygen (lean) and partial
pressure of HmCn, H2 & CO
(rich) with ambient. Gives
output from ~0.6 to 2 Lamda.
UEGO Schematic
Calibration Goals
Combustion & Thermodynamics
Work, Power & Mean Effective Pressures
Knock, Pre-Ignition
Burn Rate
Transients
Wall film
Thermal Enrichment
Drivability
Knock
Causes of Knock
Knock = f(Time,Temperature,Pressure,Octane)
Time Higher engine speeds or faster burn rates reduce knock
tendency. Burn rate can come from multiple spark sources,
more compact combustion chambers or increased turbulence
Temperature Reduced combustion temperatures reduce knock
through reduced charge temperatures (cooler incoming charge
or reduced residual burned gases), increased evaporative cooling
from richer F/A mixtures and increased combustion chamber
cooling
Pressure Lower cylinder pressures reduce knock tendency
through lower compression ratio or MAP pressure
Octane Different fuel types have higher or lower autoignition
tendencies. Octane value is directly related to knocking
tendency
Knock continued
Effects of Knock
Disrupts stagnant gases that form boundary layer at
edge of combustion chamber, increasing heat transfer
to components and raising mean combustion
chamber temp that can lead to pre-ignition
Scours oil film off cylinder wall, leading to dry friction
and increased wear of piston rings
Shockwave can induce vibratory loads into piston pin,
piston pin bore and top land - reducing oil film
thickness and accelerating wear
Shockwave can be strong enough to stress
components to failure
In-cylinder Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric pressure
transducers develop
charge with changes
in pressure
Installed in
combustion chamber
wall or spark plug to
measure full-cycle
pressures
Typical pressure probe installation

Passage drilled through deck face (avoiding coolant jacket)


Cylinder Pressure Trace
No Knock
Cylinder Pressure Trace
Knock Limit or Trace Knock - Best Power
Cylinder Pressure Trace
Severe Damaging Knock
Pre-Ignition
Effects of Pre-Ignition
Increases peak cylinder pressure by beginning heat
release too soon
Increased cylinder pressure also increases heat load
to combustion chamber components, sustaining the
pre-ignition (leading to run-away pre-ignition)
Increases loads on piston crown and piston pin
Sustained pre-ignition will typically put a hole in the
center of the piston crown
Burn Rate
Burn Rate = f(Spark, Dilution Rate/FA Ratio, Chamber Volume
Distribution, Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity)
Spark
Closer to MBT the faster the burn with trace knock the fastest
Dilution Rate/FA Ratio
Least dilution (exhaust residual or anything unburnable) fastest
FA Ratio best rate around LBT
Chamber Volume Distribution
Smallest chamber with shortest flame path best (multiple ignition sources shorten
flame path)
Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity
Crank angle time for complete burn nearly constant with increasing engine speed
indicating other factors speeding burn rate
Mixture motion-contributed angular momentum conserved as cylinder volume
decreases during compression stroke, eventually breaking down into vortices
around TDC increasing kinetic energy in charge
Turbulent Intensity a measure of total kinetic energy available to move flame front
faster than laminar flame speed. More Turbulent Intensity equals faster burn.
Combustion & Thermodynamics
Summary
Peak Specific Power
LBT fuelling for best compromise between available oxygen
and charge density
MBT spark if possible, fast burn rate assumed at peak load
Highest engine speed to allow highest compression ratio
Highest octane
Peak Thermal Efficiency at desired load
Highest compression ratio will have best combustion,
usually with highest expansion ratio for best use of thermal
energy
MBT spark with fastest burn rate
10% lean of stoichiometry will provide best compromise
between heat losses and pumping work, but not used
because of catalyst performance impacts in pass cars
Transient Fuelling
Liquid fuel does not burn, only fuel vapour
Heat from somewhere must be used to make vapour which
is why up to 500% more fuel must be used on a cold start to
provide sufficient vapour for engine to run (relationship
between temperature and partial pressure of fuel fractions)
Most of heat during fully warm operation comes from back
side of intake valve and port walls
Because of geometry a large portion of fuel wets wall this film
travels at some fraction of free stream. Therefore some fuel from
every pulse goes into engine and some onto port wall.
On a fast acceleration, additional fuel must be added to offset the
slowly moving wall film. Opposite true on decels.
If injector is positioned far upstream volumetric efficiency increases
due fuel heat of vapourization cooling incoming charge, but a large
amount of wall is wetted leading to poor transient fuel control
Injector Targeting
Bad Tip Location

Better Tip Location

Targets Valve

Targets Port Wall


Thermal Enrichment
Durability
Combustion temperatures can reach 4000 deg K and
drop to 1800 deg K before Exhaust Valve Opening
(EVO)
Materials must operate at sufficiently low temperature
to maintain strength, so Exhaust Gas Temperature
(EGT) limits must be adhered to for sufficient
durability
Usually 950 deg C runner temperature is acceptable
for a developed package, as low as 800 deg C for
undeveloped components may be necessary
Primary path for cooling is additional fuel beyond LBT,
as heat of vapourization cools the charge before
ignition (pressure-charged engines primarily)
Drivability
Throttle Response
Drivers expect some repeatability and
resolution of thrust versus pedal position
some degree of spark mapping (retard) and
pedal to throttle cam can help a drivers
confidence
Usually least developed and of most
importance is tip-in (throttle closed to small
opening) where torque can come in as a step
change
Closing Remarks
Calibration is compromise
Best spark for drivability may not produce
sufficient combustion stability or fuel
consumption
Best fuelling for drivability is voracious fuel
consumer - decel fuel shut off can improve
economy by 20% but has tip-in torque bumps
without careful calibration
References
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B
Heywood, 1988 McGraw-Hill
The Design and Tuning of Competition Engines Sixth
Edition, Philip H Smith, 1977 Robert Bentley
The Development of Piston Aero Engines, Bill Gunston,
1993 Haynes Publishing
Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, Gordon P.
Blair, 1999 SAE
Advanced Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1995 SAE
Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1999 SAE
Q&A

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