Ta-Pei Cheng

talk based on

Oxford Univ Press (2/ 2013)

Einsteins Physics
Atoms, Quanta, and Relativity --- Derived,
Explained, and Appraised
2TOC

Albert Einstein ATOMIC NATURE OF MATTER

1. Molecular size from classical fluids
1879 1955 2. The Brownian motion
QUANTUM THEORY
3. Blackbody radiation: From Kirchhoff to Planck
The book 4. Einsteins proposal of light quanta
explains his Physics 5. Quantum theory of specific heat
in equations 6. Waves, particles, and quantum jumps
7. BoseEinstein statistics and condensation
8. Local reality and the EinsteinBohr debate
SPECIAL RELATIVITY
9. Prelude to special relativity
Todays talk 10. The new kinematics and E = mc2
provides 11. Geometric formulation of relativity
without
GENERAL RELATIVITY
math details 12. Towards a general theory of relativity
13. Curved spacetime as a gravitational field
some highlights 14. The Einstein field equation
in 15. Cosmology
historical context
WALKING IN EINSTEINS STEPS
16. Internal symmetry and gauge interactions
17. The KaluzaKlein theory and extra dimensions
3Atoms

Molecular size & Avogadros number

classical liquids with suspended particles

(4/1905) U Zurich doctoral thesis: On the determination of molecular dimensions

(11 days later) the Brownian motion paper:
2 equations relating P & N A to
Jean viscosity and diffusion coefficients
Perrin
While thermal forces change the direction and magnitude
Hydrodynamics Navier-Stokes equation, balance of osmotic and viscous forces
of the velocity of a suspended particle on such a small
Es most cited publication!
time-scale that it cannot be measured, the overall drift
of such a particle is observable quantity.
2 RT t
x 2 2 Dt
N A 6 P
Fluctuation of a particle system
random walk as the prototype of discrete system
A careful measurement of this
zigzag motion through k N
2

a simple microscope would

allow us to deduce the It finally convinced everyone, even the skeptics, of
Avogadro number! the reality of molecules & atoms.
4Quanta 1

Einstein, like Planck, arrived at the quantum hypothesis thru BBR

Blackbody Radiation (rad in thermal equilibrium) = cavity radiation

Kirchhoff (1860) u(T ) & (T , )

of oscillators u = E2,=B2universal
densities ~ oscillatorfunctions
nd
Maxwell EM radiation2 =law
a collection energy kx2
0 (T , )invariant
) adiabatic
The ratio of oscillating energy to frequencyuis(Tan d ; p = u/3
Stefan (1878) Boltzmann (1884): u (T ) aT 4
Wiens displacement law (1893): (T , ) 3 f ( / T )

Wiens distribution (1896): (T , ) 3e / T fits data well. until IR

3 Excellent fit
Plancks distribution (1900): (T , ) / T of all the data
e 1
Wien = high of Planck key: Wien 2 ->1 var

What is the physics? Planck found a relation 8c 3 2U entropy dS dU / T

What microstate counting W that can lead to this S via Boltzmanns principle S=k lnW ?
Planck was compelled to make the hypothesis of energy quantization h
5Quanta 2

Einsteins 1905 proposal of light quanta h

was not a direct follow-up of Plancks
Einstein used Plancks calculation 8c 3 2U and
invoked the equipartition theorem of stat mech U 12 kT
to derive the Rayleigh-Jeans law 2T
noted its solid theoretical foundation
showing andclassical physics
BBR = clear challenge to u d
the problem of ultraviolet catastrophe 0
Rayleigh-Jeans = the low frequency limit of the successful Plancks distribution
The high frequency limit (Wiens distribution ) = new physics
concentrate on Statistical study of (BBR)wien
entropy change due to volume change: (BBR)wien ~ ideal gas
(BBR)wien= a gas of light quanta with energy of h
Einstein arrived at energy quantization independently---- cited Planck only in 2 places
6Quanta 2

An historical aside:

The history of RayleighJeans law:

June 1900, Rayleigh, applying the equipartition theorem to radiation, he
obtained the result of C12T . Only a limit law? Intro cutoff = C12T exp(-C2/T)
OctoberDecember 1900, The Planck spectrum distribution was discovered;
energy quantization proposed two months later
March 1905, Einstein correctly derived the R-J law 8c-3 2 kT
noted its solid theoretical foundation and the problem of ultraviolet catastrophe
May 1905, Rayleigh returned with a derivation of C1. But missed a factor of 8
June 1905, James Jeans corrected Rayleighs error
But, explained away the incompatibility with experimental results by insisting that
the observed radiation was somehow out of thermal equilibrium.
A.Pais: It should really be called Rayleigh-Einstein-Jeans law.

Plancks fortunate failure?

7Quanta 3

The quantum idea Einstein vs Planck

Planck 1900: h is only a formal Einstein 1905: as Ps W-calculation unreliable
relation, not physical (radiation not Es quantum in opposition to Ps quantum
inherently quantum: only during
Einstein:
transmission, packets of energy, somehow)
the quantum idea must represent new physics;
1906 Einstein came in agreement with Plancks. proposed photoelectric effect as test.
Also, gave a new derivation of Plancks law
It clearly explained why energy quantization K max h W
can cure ultraviolet catastrophe
The new physics must be applicable beyond
BBR: quantum theory of specific heat
Einsteins photon idea was strongly resisted by the physics community for many years
because it conflicted with the known evidence for the wave nature of light
(Millikan 1916): Einsteins photoelectric equation . . . cannot in my judgment be looked upon at
present as resting upon any sort of a satisfactory theoretical foundation, even though
it actually represents very accurately the behavior of the photoelectric effect.
Planck did not accept Einsteins photon for at least 10 years
8Quanta 4

(1909) Light quanta = particles ?

Einstein applied his fluctuatio n theory of 1904 :
E
E stated:
2

Equanta
E carried
kT Photon carries energy + momentum
2 2
1st time T
by point-like particles
Wave-Particle Duality: ahdeep
2 h/
priddle
pointons
to radiation distributi E ofv so that h as
of view vkT factor wave particle
Econversion
2

Newtonian emission theory T

3 2
c E
Rayleigh - Jeans' E 2 ~ waves : u 2 u 2
RJ 8 2
vd
Wein' s E 2 E h ~ particles : u 2 uh
W

Planck' s distribution E 2 E 2 E 2
Planck W RJ
Neither just as waves or just as particles, but a " fusion" of the two!
9 Quanta 5

191617, Einstein used Bohrs quantum jump idea to construct a

microscopic theory of radiationmatter interaction: absorption and
emission of photons (A and B coefficients); he showed how Plancks
Looking beyond Einstein: His discoveries in quantum theory:
spectral distribution followed. The central novelty and lasting feature is
Wave/particle
the introduction natureinofquantum
of probability light and quantum jumps
dynamics
can all be accounted for in the framework of quantum field theory
Modern quantum mechanics :
states = vectors in Hilbert space (superposition)
observables = operators (commutation relations)
Classical radiation field = collection of oscillators
En (n 2 )h
1
Quantum radiation field = collection of quantum oscillators
A firm mathematical foundation for Einsteins photon idea
a n ~ n 1
Quantum jumps naturally accounted for by ladder operators
The picture of interactions broadened QFT description: a , a h
Interaction can change not only motion, but also allows for
emission and absorption of radiation
particle
behavior

creation and annihilation of particles

10Quanta 6

The riddle of waveparticle duality in radiation fluctuation

elegantly resolved in QFT
three-man paper of (Born, Heisenberg, and Jordan 1926): forgotten history

The same calculation of fluctuation of a system of waves,

but replacing classical field by operators

Ae
i j i i
a j e j a j e j with a j , a k h jk
Noncommuti ng a bring about an extra term u 2 u 2 uh
Alas, Einstein never accepted this beautiful resolution
as he never accepted the new framework of quantum mechanics
11Quanta 7

Local reality & the Einstein-Bohr debate

Orthodox interpretation of QM (Niels Bohr & co): the attributes of a physical object
(position, momentum, spin, etc.) can be assigned only when they have been measured.
Local realist viewpoint of reality (Einstein,): a physical object has definite attributes
whether they have been measured or not. . QM is an incomplete theory
The orthodox view (measurement actually produces an objects property)
the measurement of one part of an entangled quantum state would instantaneously
produce the value of another part, no matter how far the two parts have been separated.
Einstein, Podolsky & Rosen (1935) : a thought experiment highlighting this
spooky action-at-a-distance feature ; the discussion and debate of EPR paradox
have illuminated some of the fundamental issues related to the meaning of QM
Bells theorem (1964) : these seemingly philosophical questions could lead to
observable results. The experimental vindication of the orthodox interpretation has
sharpened our appreciation of the nonlocal features of quantum mechanics. Einsteins
criticism allowed a better understanding of the meaning of QM.
Nevertheless, the counter-intuitive picture of objective reality as offered by QM
still troubles many, leaving one to wonder whether quantum mechanics is ultimately
a complete theory
12SR 1

Special Relativity
Maxwells equations: EM wave c
Contradict relativity? 2 inertial frames x = x - vt get velocity addn rule u = u - v
The then-accepted interpretation: Max eqns valid only in the rest-frame of ether

Q: How should EM be described for sources and observers

moving with respect to the ether-frame?
The electrodynamics of a moving body

1895 Lorentzs theory (a particular dynamics theory of ether/matter)

could account all observation stellar aberration, Fizeaus expt to O(v/c)
v
x' x vt [ + a math construct local time ] t ' t 2
x
c
Michelson-Morley null result @ O(v2/c2) length contraction
Lorentz transformation Maxwell covariant to all orders (1904)

Einsteins very different approach ..

13SR 2
Special Relativity
Einsteins very different approach ..
constructive theory
vs
theory of principle
Relativity = a symmetry in physics
Physics unchanged under some transformation
How to reconcile (Galilean) relativity u = u - v
with the constancy of c?
Resolution: simultaneity is relative
Time is not absolute, but frame dependent
t' t
Relation among inertial frames
Correctly given by Lorentz transformation,
with Galilean transformation as low v/c approx
The magnet-conductor thought expt
Case I: moving charge in B (ether frame)
Lorentz force (per unit charge)
f
v B
e
Case II: changing B induces an E via
Faradays law, resulting exactly the
same force. yet such diff descriptions
Invoke the principle of relativity
This equality can be understood naturally
as two cases have the same relative motion
Dispense with ether
14SR 3

Special Relativity 1905

From no absolute time to the complete theory in five weeks 10yr

The new kinematics

allows for an simple derivation of the Lorentz transformation.
All unfamiliar features follow from t ' . t
time dilation, length contraction, etc.

Transformation rule for EM fields, radiation energy,..

Lorentz force law from Max field equations
Work-energy theorem to mass-energy equivalence E = mc2
15SR 4

Special Relativity Geometric formulation

Even simpler perspective
Hermann Minkowski (1907)
Essence of SR:
time is on an equal footing as space.
To bring out this, unite them in a single math structure, spacetime

Emphasizes the invariance of the theory: c s SR: The arena of physics is the
s 2 c 2 t 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 x g x
4D spacetime
Einstein was initially not impressed,
1
calling it
1 superfluous learnedness
metric g
1
.. until he tried to formulate

1 General relativity (non-inertial frames)
= Field theory of gravitation
s = a spacetime length (c as the conversion factor) Gravity = structure of spacetime
Lorentz-transformation = rotation SR features SR = flat spacetime
4-tensor equations are automatically relativistic GR = curved spacetime
16GR 1

Why does GR principle automatically Gravity disappears in a free fall frame

bring gravity into consideration?
How is gravity related to spacetime?
The Equivalence Principle (1907)
played a key role in the formulation of
general theory of relativity
starting from Galileo Remarkable empirical observation
All objects fall with the same acceleration

a = g
Einstein: My happiest thought
accelerated frame = inertial frame w/ gravity EP as the handle of going from SR to GR

From mechanics to electromagnetism light deflection by gravity, time dilation

with such considerations...Einstein proposed a geometric theory of gravitation in 1912
gravitational field = warped spacetime
Note: A curved space being locally flat, EP incorporated in GR gravity theory in a fundamental way.
17GR 2

metric tensor [g] =

gravitational field = warped spacetime rela. grav. potential

Source
Sourceparticle
particle Curved Field
spacetime Eqn of
Test
Test particle
particle
Field eqn Geodesic
Einstein motion
field eqn Eqn
1915 The Einstein equation
gN Newtons constant G g N T 10 coupled PDEs
solution = [g]
T energy momentum tensor
Metric = gravi pot
G curvature tensor = nonlinear 2nd derivatives of [g] Curvature = tidal forces

In the limit of test particles moving with non-relativistic velocity

in a static and weak grav field

Einstein Newton (1/r 2 law explained!)

ie new realms of gravity
18GR 3

GR = field theory of gravitation

3 classical tests
Grav redshift
Bending of light
Precession of planet orbit

In relativity, space-dep time-dep, GR gravitational wave

Indirect, but convincing, evidence thru decade-long observation of
Hulse-Taylor binary pulse system

Black Holes = full power and glory of GR

Gravity so strong that even light cannot escape
Role of space and time is reversed: lightcones tip over across the horizon

Alas, Einstein
never believed
the reality of BH
19 cosmo
Cosmology
(Einstein 1917)
The 1st paper on modern cosmology
The universe = a phys system
the constituent elements being galaxies
Gravity the only relevant interaction
GR = natural framework for cosmology
Spatial homogeneity & isotropy
(the cosmological principle)
Robertson-Walker metric : k, a(t)
Einstein equation
derivatives a (t ) 0 superluminal expansion in the earliest mo
Expanding Universe
GR provide the framework !
Still, Einstein missed the chance of its
prediction before the discovery in late 1920s
In order to produce a static universe he found
a way to introduce a grav repulsion in the
form of the cosmology constant
G g g N T
Easier to interpret it as a vacuum energy:
constant density and negative pressure
repulsion that increases w/ distance.
significant only on cosmological scale
= a great discovery
key ingredient of modern cosmology
Inflation theory of the big bang: a large
the universe underwent an explosive
= dark energy the Us expansion to
accelerate in the present epoch
The concordant CDM cosmology
20 sym

Einstein and the symmetry principle General relativity

Before Einstein, symmetries were generally regarded curved spacetime with moving basis vectors
as mathematical curiosities of great value to spacetime dependent metric [g] = [g(x)]
crystallographers, but hardly worthy to be included
Rotation symmetry
among the fundamental laws of physics. We now
general coord transf = spacetime dependent
R
( x)

understand that a symmetry principle
vector transformatio n A A ' R A

not only an organizational device,

is R Local symmetry


but alsoFamethod

ma 0 F 'm'new
to

discover
a ' dynamics.
0 Differentiation results in a non-tensor
RF ma 0





dA' R dA 0
dR
Tensors have def transf property Must replace by covariant differentiation
d D d g
Tensor equations are automatically
rotational symmetric.
Special relativity DA ' R DA
R = Lorentz transformation SR GR with d D
.
4-tensor eqns are auto relativistic
. gravity is brought in
Spacetime-independent R
Global symmetry symmetry dynamics
21gauge1
Einstein & unified field theory
the last 30 years of his life , strong conviction:
GR + ED solving the quantum mystery?
Was not directly fruitful, but his insight had
fundamental influence on effort by others:
Gauge theories and KK unification, etc.
But both made sense only in modern QM
Gauge invariance of electrodynamics
E, B A, invariant under
A' A r, t ' t r, t
in quantum mechanics must + wf transf
i ( r ,t )
' (r , t ) e (r , t )
U(1) local transformation
Transformation in the internal charge space
changing particle label
Such local symmetry in a charge space is
now called gauge symmetry
Gauge principle:
Regard transf as more basic, as it can be gotten
by changing U(1) from global to be local.
d DdA
brings in the compensating field A ,
the gauge field
Given A , Maxwell derived by SR+gauge ie the simplest
Electrodynamics as a gauge interaction
Gauge principle can be used to extend
consideration to other interactions
History:
Inspired by Einsteins geometric GR
1919 H Weyl attempt GR+ED unification via
Local scale symmetry [g (x)]= (x)[g(x)]
Calling it eichinvarianz
1926 V Fock, after the advent of QM,
discovered phase transf of (x)
F London: drop i is just Weyl transf
Weyl still kept the name: gauge transf
22gauge2
Particle physics
Special relativity, photons, & Bose-
Einstein statistics = key elements
But Einstein did not work
directly on any particle phys theory.
Yet, the influence of his ideas had
been of paramount importance to
the successful creation of
the Standard Model of particle physics
Symmetry principle
as the guiding light.
ED is a gauge interaction based on
abelian (commutative) transf.
1954 CN Yang + R Mills extend it to
non-abelian (non-commutative)
Much richer, nonlinear theory, can
describe strong & weak interactions
Straightforward extension of QED ?
Quantization and renormalization of Yang-Mills th
extremely difficult. Furthermore, the truly relevant
degrees of freedom for strongly interacting particle
are hidden (quark confinement).
The applicability of gauge sym to weak int was
doubted because the symmetry itself is hidden
(spontaneous sym breaking due to Higgs mech)
1970s renaissance of QFT SMs triumph
The Standard Model is a good example of
a theory of principle:
the gauge symmetry principle dynamics,
as well as a constructive theory : discoveries of
* quarks and leptons,
* the sym groups of SU(2)xU(1) & SU(3)
follow from trial-and-error theoretical prepositions
and experimental checks
SM is formulated in the framework of QM
Holy grail of modern unification = [GR + QM]
23KK

Q: What is the charge space?

Whats the origin of gauge symmetry?
*Gauge transf = coord transf in extra D
Internal charge space = extra D
Kaluza-Klein theory
unification of GR+Maxwell
1919 Th Kaluza : 5D GR
extra dimension w/ a particular geometry [g]kk
GR5kk = GR4 + ED4
The Kaluza-Klein miracle!
In physics , even a miracle requires an explanation
1926 O Klein explained in modern QM

Foreshadowed modern unification theories. *Compactified extra D a tower of KK states

GR + SM the decoupling of heavy particles
the compactified space = multi-dimensional simplifies the metric to [g]kk

Einsteins
influence lives on!
24

The fundamental nature of

Summary of a summary Einsteins contribution
illustrated by Planck unit system

Natural units, not human construct h -- c -- gN

Dimensions of a fundamental theory form an unit system of
i.e. quantum gravity (GR + QM) mass/length/time
Fundamental c 5 of these19
nature constants
P c as conversion
1.2 10
2
M shown GeV
factors
gN
connecting disparate phenomena
g N
lP 1.6 10 33 cm
h: Wave & Particle (QT) 3
Einsteins
c
All due to
c: Space & Time (SR) essential
g N contribution !
gN: Mass/energy & Geometry(GR) tP 5
44
5.4 10 s
c
 These PowerPoint slides are posted @
www.umsl.edu/~chengt/einstein.html