WELCOME TO AVERA

HARDWARE
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTERS
 COMPUTER

Electronic Device
Machine that performs tasks , such as
calculations, under the control of a set of
instructions called a program.
 What is ???
Hardware

Software
1. Application
2. System

Firmware
 HARDWARE : Hardware describes all the physical
components of computer i.e. Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor,
Hard disk etc.

SOFTWARE : Software is the set of instructions or the

collection of programs. There are 2 types of softwares.
1. System Software Windows, Linux etc.
2. Application Software Ms-Office, Winamp etc.

FIRMWARE : Firmware are the programs that are

permanently written and stored in computer memory.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1st Generation (1946 - 55) - Vaccum Tubes

2nd Generation (1956 - 65) - Transistors

3rd Generation (1966 - 75) - ICS (Integrated Circuits)

4th Generation (1976 - 80) - Microprocessor

5th Generation (1980..) - Advanced Microprocessors

 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Micro Computers (Desktop)

Mini Computers

Mainframe Computers

Super Computers
MINICOMPUTER
A mini-computer is larger
than a PC but generally
smaller than a mainframe. A
common operating system is
UNIX though manufacturers
may have their own
proprietary operating
systems as well. Ex. Mini-
computers are well suited
for use in commercial,
business, engineering and
scientific applications.
MAINFRAME
A mainframe may be
shared by large number
of users, often numbering
in the hundreds.
Processing, storage and
printing are shared
services provided in the
mainframe
Ex. Banks, insurance
companies and large
national or international
companies use
mainframe computers.
SUPERCOMPUTER

They are very large

computers with very large
computing power and huge
RAM. One supercomputer
contains 5800 processors
and more than a trillion
bytes of RAM.
Ex. Supercomputers are
mainly used in the science
and engineering projects.
 HARDWARE DEVICES

Processor
Motherboard
RAM
Hard Disk
SMPS
Monitor
Keyboard
Mouse
Printers etc.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE
COMPUTER

Keyboard, Mouse Monitor, Printer

 The CPU (central processing unit, may be called the
Microprocessor) is essentially, the brain of the
computer. It contains circuits that

(1) perform arithmetic and logic Calculations (ALU,

Arithmetic Logic Unit)

(2) control the devices attached to the processor

(Control Unit)

(3) has very high-speed memory (cache memory).

 PROCESSOR (CPU)
It is the Heart of a computer

It is Processor, because it processes (moves and

calculate) data.

It is central, because it is the center of PC data

processing.

It is a unit, because it is a chip, which contains millions of

transistors.
 PROCESSORS

Socket Pinless
Processor

Slot
Processor
Processor

Processor
Slot
Generations of Processor

Processor Bits Speed

8080 8 2 MHz

8086 16 4.5 10 MHz

8088 16 4.5 10 MHz

80286 16 10 20 MHz

80386 32 20 40 MHz

80486 32 40 133 MHz

Generations of Processor
Processor Bits Speed

Pentium 32 60 233 MHz

Pentium Pro 32 150 200

MHz
Pentium II, 32 233 450
Celeron , MHz
Xeon
Pentium III, 32 450 MHz
Celeron , 1.4 GHz
Xeon
Pentium IV, 32 1.3 GHz
Celeron , 3.8 GHz
Xeon
Itanium 64 800 MHz
3.0 GHz
 MOTHERBOARD
It is circuit board also known as the system Board.

All components are attached on the Board.

The board contains : - Central Processing Unit (CPU),

underlying circuitry, expansion slots, random access
memory (RAM) slots, and a variety of other chips.
Motherboard
 MEMORY

RAM (Random Access Memory)

ROM (Read Only Memory)

 MEMORY MEASUREMENTS

8 bits = 1Byte = 1 character

1024 Bytes = 1KB (kilo byte)
1024 KB = 1MB (mega byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (giga byte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (tera byte)
 RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is call Random Access because one can access

any memory cell which is the basic unit of data storage.
Its a volatile memory
Ram is used for temporary storage of data.
 Types of RAM
DRAM (dynamic)
EDO RAM (extended data output)
SDRAM (synchronous dynamic)
DDRRAM (double data rate)
SGRAM (synchronous graphic)
VRAM (video)
RDRAM (rambus dynamic)
SRAM (static)
Types of DRAM

EDO RAM (Extended Data Out)

Pins- 32-72, 2MB-8MB

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

Pins- 168, 16MB-256MB

DDR (Double Date Rate)

Pins-184, 128MB-2GB
 STORAGE DEVICES
Hard Disk

Floppy Disk

CD-ROM
HARD DISK
 HARD DISK

It is a secondary storage device.

It Stores the data permanently which the CPU has been
processed
It has the large storage capacity
It is non-volatile
It is used to store songs, movies, and large Data files
1. IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) Connectors

Power Connector
for Hard disk
IDE
connectors

40 Pin IDE

40 Pin Ultra IDE

2. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

SATA Ports
(7pin 7 wires)

Power Connector For SATA

from Molex

SATA Cables
3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface

SCSI Hard Disk

(68 pins)

68 pin (P) connector on

M/B.

P Cable
FLOPPY DISK DRIVE
 FLOPPY DISK

It is the secondary storage device

It has a limited storage capacity
It is used to store Documents and Spreadsheets files
 Floppy Drive Connector

Mini Molex
Power Connector
for Floppy Drive

Floppy Drive Cable

CD-ROM DRIVE
 CD-ROM DRIVE

The optical disc drive is now an Universal device on

computers.
One CD or DVD is equivalent to hundreds of floppy
disks.
It is used to store Data, Songs, Videos etc
SMPS : (Switch Mode Power Supply)

Electronic devices require electricity to operate. Most internal

components are DC (direct-current) but the line voltage is AC
(alternating current.) One of the roles of the power supply is,
therefore, to convert AC to DC voltage.
TYPES OF SMPS

AT Two 6-pin connectors 12 pin connector in M\B

ATX 20 pin connector

BTX 24 pin connector +

4 pin connector
AT (Advanced Technology)
ATX ( Advanced Technology Extended )

BTX ( Balanced Technology

Extended)
 TYPES OF PORTS

DIN5: ( Deutsche Industry Norm )

5 Pin Normal Keyboard Connector

PS/2: (Personal System)

6 pin Ps2 connectors

Green Mouse
Purple -- Keyboard

VGA: (Video Graphic Array)

15 Pin VGA Connector

Monitor
Game and Sound ports

15 Pin connector
Joystick

Line IN Line Out MIC

External
Micro
Audio Speakers
phones
Sources
Parallel Port (LPT Port)

25 Pin connector
Printers , Scanners

Serial Port (COM Port)

9 Pin connector
Serial Mouse , External Modem
USB : (Universal Serial Bus)

Keyboard
Mouse
Scanner
Pen Drive
Printers
Many Mores

.
TYPES OF SLOTS

ISA : ( Industry Standard Architecture )

Width (bits) Speed (MHz)

8 / 16 8

PCI : ( Peripheral Component Interconnect )

Width (bits) Speed (MHz)

32 33 / 66
PCI - Express :

Width (bits) Speed (MHz)

32 2500

AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)

Width (bits) Speed (MHz)

32 533
THANK YOU
DAY-2
 BOOT PROCESS
POWER ON BOOTABLE DEVICE

SMPS OS LOADING
INTO RAM

MOTHERBOARD

SYSTEM
INITIALIZATION
BIOS

CMOS
 BIOS
BIOS (Basic Input/output system) is a set of
instruction or programm that acts as a interface
between the hardware and the operating
system.

ROM BIOS is a chip that contains the startup

programms and drivers used to start the system.
 POST
POST (Power On Self Test) is the program
stored in the ROM BIOS that runs about
system initialization and performs harware
detection task.

When POST detects an error from

keyboard, mouse, memory or other
devices it produces an error message.
 CMOS
CMOS - Complimentary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor.
The BIOS needs various parameter
(hardware configuration) information to
perform its task, these are permanently
saved in CMOS RAM.
The CMOS power is supplied by a little
battery, so its contents will not be lost after
the PC is turned off.
 PC ASSEMBLING
Gather all required devices.
Open the case and remove power supply
and drive chassis.
Setup your motherboard
Install the CPU
Install main MEMORY (RAM)
Install the power supply.
 Connect keyboard, mouse and monitor.
Conduct system check (self test)
Install hard disk, floppy drive and cd-rom
drive.
Install all data cables.
Connect front panel and speaker.
Connect all power connectors.
Configure the BIOS.
Install the Operating system.
 DISPLAY TEST
Required devices :
Motherboard
Processor
RAM
SMPS
Keyboard
Monitor
 ASSEMBLING A PC
CABINET FDD/CDROM

MOTHERBOARD SMPS

PROCESSOR DATA CABLES

RAM POWER CABLES

HARD DISK POWER ON

THANK YOU
DAY-3
 PARTITIONING

FORMATTING

OS INSTALLATION

TROUBLESHOOTING
 PARTITIONING

Partitioning the hard disk is the act of

dividing it into logical volumes.

Partitioning can be done in order to use the

space in a disk, to install multiple operating
systems or file systems on a single disk.
 TYPES OF PARTITIONS
Primary partition: Operating system can be installed in
this type of partition. Each primary partition will be assigned
one drive letter.

Extended partition: It is a space where logical partitions

can be created. No drive letters are assigned to this type
of partition.
Logical partition: Data can be stored in this type of
partition. Each logical partition will be assigned one drive
letter.
Scenario For Partition Creation

Primary Partition

Logical Partition

Extended
Partition

Logical Partition
 FORMATTING
Low - Level Format : It turns the platter form
a blank state to a divided slate. It defines the
data areas, creates tracks, separates into
sectors, and the ID numbers to each sector.
High Level Format : It copies hidden
system files to the volume. It writes the boot
sector, creates the FAT, writes the root
directory.
 FILE SYSTEM

FAT16 FAT32 NTFS

Cluster size
for a
64 sectors 8 Sectors 4 Sectors
partition
size of 2 GB

Partition
16MB 4GB 512MB 2TB 512MB 16EB
size limit
Windows 98, Windows NT,
Windows XP, Windows XP,
Operating Windows 95,
Windows 2000, Windows 2000,
systems Windows 98
Windows 2003, etc Windows 2003,
etc
Steps for installation of XP OS

Start the PC, insert the CD and enter into the BIOS setup by pressing F2 or
DEL (depending on the BIOS)
Make the Order as CD ROM as First Device
Save the changes and Exit .
 TROUBLESHOOTING
Define the problem
Break the cycle into 3 phase
1. System stsrtup phase
2. The Operating system phase
3. System shutdown
Press f8 just after the post complete
Use safe mode to load OS with minimal
drivers
 SYSTEM WON`T START
Make sure that power cable is connected
properly.
Check that monitor is on and getting power.
If there is no display go for display test
In case of getting display check for booting
priority.
Check drives connectivity for data cable and
power supply.
 BEEP CODES
Contineous beeps system board failure
Long contineous beeps Memory fault
COMPACT BEEPS
1s - no error
1-1s - cmos error
1 2s- Vedio adaptor error
1-1-2 - CPU register test fail
Network

Interconnection of computers and devices is

known as network.

Network is used for sharing resources among the

computers. The resources can be both hardware as well as
software.

Networking

Configuration of a network is known as networking. ex:

assigning name/address to a computer for its identification in
a network.
Types Of Networks

LAN (Local area network)

Any network located in a small area (in a building or a campus)

is known as Local area network.

MAN (Metropolitan area network)

Two or more networks connected within a city, is

known as Metropolitan area network.

WAN (Wide area network)

Two or more networks connected between cities, states or

countries, is known as Wide area network.
Requirements of a Network

1. NIC

2. Media

3. Protocols

4. Topology

5. IP Address
NIC ( Network Interface Card ):

Also known as LAN card, network adapter, etc.

It will have physical address known as MAC (Media

access control) address.
The address is of 48-bit binary or 12-digit Hexa-decimal.

No two LAN cards in the world will have the same MAC address.

No. of systems
Speed (mbps)
per network
ARCnet 2.5 255
UTP-72
Token net 4/16/100
STP-260
Ethernet 10 1024

Fast Ethernet 100 1024

Gigabit
1000 1024
Ethernet
Media

Unguided Media :-

No specific path exists between the devices for

data transmission.

Ex: Wireless comm.., satellite comm.

Guided Media :-

Specific path exists between the devices for data

transmission.

Ex: Cables
Co-axial cable

Thicknet (RG-8) Thinnet (RG-58)

10BASE5 10BASE2

Speed 10mbps Speed 10mbps

Max. cable length w/o Max. cable length w/o

having signal loss having signal loss
500m 200m

Connectors
BNC British naval connector
T-Connector, Terminator
Twisted pair cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair

UTP

Wire jacket

Max. cable length w/o having signal loss 50m

Shielded Twisted Pair

STP

Wire jacket

Metal shield

Max cable length w/o having signal loss 100m

Categories of twisted pair cables

Speed (mbps) No. of pairs

CAT1 2 1 or 2

CAT2 4 4

CAT3 10 4

CAT4 20 4

CAT5 100 4

CAT5e 500 4

CAT6 1000 4
Fiber optic cable
 Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels.
Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light
back into the core
Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
Advantages
1.SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up 2.5 Gbps
2.BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
3.DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further (10 to 12 Km) without
needing to be regenerated or strengthened
4.RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios,
motors or other nearby cables
5.MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain
Transmission Modes

1. Simplex: Communication takes place only in one

direction either sending or receiving but not both.
2. Half-duplex: Communication takes place in both the
directions but not at the same time.
3. Full-duplex: Communication takes place in both the
directions at the same time.

Transmission Types

1. Unicast: One to one communication

2. Multicast: One to group communication
3. Broadcast: One to all communication
Topologies

BUS

Terminator
Co-axial cable

T-Connector

A single co-axial cable is used as a backbone for the

network.
Systems are connected to the cable using T-
connectors.
Messages are sent in both directions of the cable.
Terminators are used to absorb/nullify unwanted
signals in the network.
Token Ring

A token (a packet) will be circulating around the

network.
In order to send messages, systems first have to
capture the token and then attach message to it.
Only one system can send a message at a time.
Star

HUB / SWITCH

A networking device (Hub or Switch) is used for

connecting the systems.
Hub broadcasts the message it receives to all of the
systems.
Switch unicasts the message to the destination
system.
Mesh

Devices are connected directly to each other.

 Protocols

The set of rules and regulations for communication in

a Network. Computers on a Network cannot
communicate with other computers unless they are
using the same protocol.

TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol

Net BEUI : Net BIOS Extended User Interface

IPX / SPX : Internetwork Packet Exchange / Sequenced

Apple Talk : Default Protocol in APPLE Machines.

OSI Model

OSI was developed by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO)
and introduced in 1984.

It is a layered architecture (consists of

seven layers).

Each layer defines a set of functions

which takes part in data communication.
OSI Model Layers

Layer - 7 Application
User support
Layer - 6 Presentation Layers
or
Layer - 5 Session Software Layers

Layer - 4 Transport Core layer of

the OSI
Layer - 3 Network
Network support
Layer - 2 Data Link Layers
or
Layer - 1 Physical Hardware Layers
Application Layer

Application Layer is
Application
Application responsible for providing an
interface for the users to
Presentation interact with application
services or Networking Services
Session .
Ex: Web browser, Telnet etc.
Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Examples of Networking Services
Service Port No.

HTTP 80

FTP 20/21

SMTP 25

TELNET 23

TFTP 69
Data flow from Application Layer

Application Data

80 21 25 53 67 69

Presentation

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Presentation Layer

Presentation Layer It is responsible

Application for defining a standard format to the
data.
Presentation
It deals with data presentation.
The major functions described at this
Session
layer are..
Transport Encoding Decoding
Ex: ASCII, EBCDIC (Text)
Network JPEG,GIF,TIFF (Graphics)
MIDI,WAV (Voice)
Data Link MPEG,DAT,AVI (Video)
Encryption Decryption
Physical
Compression Decompression
Data flow from Presentation Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Session Layer

Session Layer
Application
It is responsible for establishing,
maintaining and terminating the
Presentation
sessions.
Session
Session
Session ID is used to identify a
Transport session or interaction.

Network Examples :
RPC Remote Procedural Call
Data Link SQL Structured Query Language
ASP AppleTalk Session protocol
Physical
Data flow from Session Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport

Network

Data Link

Physical
Transport Layer

Transport Layer
Application
It provides data delivery
mechanism between the
Presentation
applications in the network.
The major functions described at
Session
the Transport Layer are..
Transport
Transport
Identifying Service
Network Segmentation
Sequencing & Reassembling
Data Link
Error Correction
Physical Flow Control
Identifying a Service

Identification of Services is done using

Port Numbers.
Port is a logical communication Channel

Total No. Ports 0 65535

Server Ports 1 - 1023
Client Ports 1024 65535
Transport Layer Protocols

The protocols which takes care of Data

Transportation at Transport layer
areTCP,UDP

TCP UDP

Transmission Control User Datagram

Protocol
Connection Oriented
Supports Acks
Reliable communication
Slower data Transportation
Protocol No is 6
Eg: HTTP, FTP, SMTP
Protocol
Connection Less
No support for Acks
Unreliable communication
Faster data Transportation
Protocol No is 17
Eg: DNS, DHCP, TFTP
Segmentation

Hello! Hello! How are you ?

How are
you ? Hello! How Are You ?

A B
Sequencing & Reassembling

you
Hello! Hello! HowHow
You Hello! are ?
you
Are? Hello!
How are
How ?
you ? You Hello! How ? Are
Hello! How Are You ? are

A B
Sequencing & Reassembling

Hello! Hello! How are you ? Hello!

How are How are
you ? Hello! How Are You ? you ?
1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

You Hello! How ? Are

4/5 1/5 2/5 5/5 3/5

A B
Flow Control

Window Size = 1
Send 1 Receive 1
Ack 2
Send 2 Receive 2
Ack 3
Window Size = 3
Send 3 Receive 3
Send 4 Receive 4
Send 5 Receive 5
Ack 6
Send 7

A B
Error Correction

Segment Missing
Hello! Hello! How are you ? Hello!
How are How are
you ? Hello! How Are You ? you ?
1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

You Hello! How ? Are

4/5 1/5 2/5 5/5 3/5

A B
Data flow from Transport Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport TH
Segment
Data

Network

Data Link

Physical
Network Layer

Application Network Layer

It provides Logical addressing & Path
determination (Routing) in this layer.
Presentation

Session The protocols that work in this layer are:

Routed Protocols:
Transport IP, IPX, AppleTalk.. Etc
Routed protocols used to carry user data
Network
Network between hosts.

Routing Protocols:
Data Link RIP, OSPF.. Etc
Routing protocols performs Path
Physical determination (Routing).
Data flow from Network Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Devices that work at

Session Data
Network Layer
are Router, Multilayer
switch etc..
Transport Segment

Network NHPacket
Segment

Data Link

Physical
Datalink Layer

Datalink Layer
Application It has 2 sub layers
MAC (Media Access Control) It provides reliable
transit of data across a physical link.
Presentation
It also provides ERROR DETECTION using CRC
Session (Cyclic Redundancy Check) and ordered delivery
of Frames.
Transport Ex: Ethernet, Token ringetc

Network LLC (Logical Link Control)

It provides communication with Network layer.

Data
Data Link
Link
Negotiates with Network Layer using SAP & SNAP
protocols
Physical
Data flow from Data Link Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport Segment
Devices that work at
Data link layer are
Switch, Bridge etc.. Network Packet

Data Link DH Frame

Packet DT

Physical
Physical Layer

Physical Layer
Application It defines the electrical, Mechanical &
functional specifications for communication
between the Network devices.
Presentation
The functions described at this layer are..
Session Encoding/decoding:
It is the process of converting the binary data
into signals based on the type of the media.
Transport Copper media : Electrical signals of different
voltages
Network Fiber media : Light pulses of different
wavelengths

Data Link Wireless media: Radio frequency waves

Mode of transmision of signals:

Physical
Physical
Signal Communication happens in three different modes
Simplex, Half-duplex, Full-duplex
Protocols works at physical layer: 10BaseT, 100BaseT,
V.35, RS-232..etc
Physical Transmission of data
Example:

Frame

Hello!
How are
you ?
1010101010101010
Frame

A 0101011010101010101010101
1010101101010101010101010
0101011010101010101010101 B
Data flow from Physical Layer

Application Data

Presentation Data

Session Data

Transport Segment

Network Packet
Devices that work at
physical layer are ..
Hub, Repeater.. Etc Data Link Frame

Physical Bits
Data Encapsulation & De-capsulation

A B

Application Data Data Application

Presentation Data Data Presentation

Session Data Data Session

Transport TH TH
Transport
Data
Segment TH
Segment
Data

Network NH
Packet
Segment NHPacket
Segment NetworkNH

Data Link DHFrameDT

Packet DTFrameDH
Packet
Packet DH
DT
Data Link

Physical Bits Bits Physical

Example of HTTP request
http://www.zoomgroup.com

Client Web Server

Example of HTTP request

HTTP Request
HTTP Request
Received HTTP Reply Listen on
http:// www.zoomgroup.com
http://www.zoomgroup.com Port 80
Webpage Sending HTTP Reply
Webpage

Client Web Server

Example of FTP request
ftp://ftp.microsoft.com

Client FTP Server

Example of FTP request

FTP Request
FTP Request
Received FTP Reply Listen on
ftp://ftp.microsoft.com
ftp://ftp.microsoft.com Port 21
Sending FTP Reply

Client FTP Server

ftp://ftp.microsoft.com
Microsoft Windows 2000 [Version 5.00.2195]
(C) Copyright 1985-2000 Microsoft Corp.
C:\> telnet 192.168.1.150
Connecting .....
================================
Welcome to Hyderabad Router
================================
User Access Verification
password :
http://www.microsoft.com
http://mail.yahoo.com

xyz@yahoo.com

xyz

******
DAY - 5
IP (Internet Protocol) Addressing

Two versions of IP are available. IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4 uses 32-bit binary for addressing.
The bits are divided into 4 segments, each of 8
bits.
Each of these 8-bits is converted into decimal
digits. The first digit is known as MSD (Most
Significant Digit).
Based on MSD , the IP addresses are classified into various
classes

MSD = 8 bits , the range is from 00000000 - 11111111

Priority
Range
Bit
00000000 -
Class A 0 0 127
01111111
10000000
Class B 10 128 191
10111111
11000000
Class C 110 192 223
11011111
11100000 -
Class D 1110 224 239
11101111
11110000 -
Class E 1111 240 - 255
11111111
Each address will have network id and host id in it.

Network id is to identify the network in which the system is located.

Host id is to identify the system in the network.

Subnet Mask is used to Differentiating the Classes

Network &
Subnet Mask
Host IDs
Class A N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 Large networks
Medium
Class B N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0
networks
Class C N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 Small networks
Multicast
Class D - -
communication
Class E - - R&D
Crimping

Straight Cable Cross Cable

One-end Other-end One-end Other-end

Orange Orange Orange Green

white white white white
Orange Orange Orange Green
Green Green Green Orange
white white white white
Blue Blue Blue Blue

Blue white Blue white Blue white Blue white

Green Green Green Orange

Brown Brown Brown Brown
white white white white
Brown Brown Brown Brown
Used for connecting Used for connecting
dissimilar devices similar devices
LAN Setup:

Cross Cable (Cat 5 UTP)

IP Address : 192.168.10.5 IP Address : 192.168.10.6

Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0 Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0
BIOS ( Basic input/output system ) : - Set of device drivers for
hardware components like hard disk , k/b , Monitor , CD , etc,.

POST( Power on Self Test ) : - It checks the H/W components at

startup.

Bios Setup : - It contains configuration of motherboard and devices

used in computers .
[ including system date / time, User passwords ]
CMOS (ROM)
ROM (Read Only Memory) :
Non-volatile memory.

Contains PCs startup instructions.

It is a chip present on the Motherboard.

The following are the set of programs contained in ROM.

POST (Power On Self Test): - The POST tests computers

processor, memory, chipset,
video adapter, disk drives and
other hardware.

BIOS (Basic input/output system): - This refers to the collection of

device drivers used to act
as a basic interface between the
operating system and the
hardware when the system is
booted and running.