Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BUILDING MATERIALS
Applications cables in
suspension bridges, buildings
ALUMINUM
Type aluminum alloy
Ingredients aluminum w/
magnesium & copper
Strength lightweight,
doesnt rust, strong in
compression & tension
Weaknesses expensive
Strength cheap,
lightweight, moderately
strong in compression &
tension
Applications bridges,
houses, 2 or 3-story
bldgs
PLASTIC
Type high-strength plastic
fabric
Weaknesses expensive
Prof. P. K. Bhuyan
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Rourkela
Concrete As A Material
Concrete, literally, forms the basis of our
modern life:
Roadways/transportation systems
Infrastructure (bridges, dams, buildings)
Harbor protection (breakwalls)
Water distribution (pipes & conduit)
Concrete has deep roots in history:
Wall at Palestrina, Italy, 1st Century BC
Roman Aqueduct & Pantheon
Grand Coulee Dam
Concrete
The word concrete originates from the
Latin verb concretus, which means to
grow together.
Concrete
Water
Accelerating admixtures-
Entrained air
Bubbles are microscopic in size & distributed
through out concrete
1. Slump test
rod
concrete
Slump test
Ruler
Slump
Placing Conditions Degree of Slump
Workability (mm)
Blinding Concrete;
Shallow Sections;
Pavements using pavers Very Low See 7.1.1
Mass Concrete;
Lightly reinforced sections in Slabs, Beams,
Walls, Columns; Floors;
Hand placed Pavements; Low 25-75
Canal lining; Strip Footings
52
Factors affecting slump
water cement ratio
w/c = weight of water / weight of cement
1
1
volume = 1 cubic in
surface area = 6 square inches volume = 1 cubic in
surface area = 1.5*8= 12 square inches
Break it up further
Compute the surface area
surface area = 0.25*0.25*6*8*8=24
0.5 in
0.25 in
Larger particles, less surface area, thicker
coating, easy sliding of particles
Smaller particles, more surface area, thinner
coating, interlocking of particles
Effect of aggregate size
size # of particles volume surface area
1" 1 1 cubic inch 6 square inches
.5" 8 1 cubic inch 12 square inches
0.25 64 1 cubic inch 24 square inches
0.125 512 1 cubic inch 48 square inches
Angularity and surface texture of
aggregates
fresh concrete
aggregates paste
Interaction between bleeding and evaporation
Evaporation
surface water
Bleed water
Evaporation
no surface water
drying
Cube making:
Prime objectives
to achieve full compaction
avoid loss of moisture
keep at proper temperature when in curing tank
Use proper tools.
Advantage of cube shape is ease of making
accurate sides.
Cube Making
Specifications
Cube Curing and Cube Testing
Cube Reports and Cube Failures
Cube Curing and Cube Testing
Cube Curing:
De-mould (take the mould out) when
stability of cube allows.
Prevent loss of moisture before placing
in curing tank.
Loss in strength due to initial drying out
is unrecoverable.
No provision for in-situ cubes. Give
temperature matched curing.
Cube curing
Cube Testing
Prof. P. K. Bhuyan
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Rourkela
TOPICS
Stone Masonry
Stone as a Construction Material
Classification of Stone
Cutting and Dressing of Stones
Construction of Stone Masonry
Comparison between Brick and Stone
masonry
Stone
a natural, hard substance formed from
minerals and earth material which are
present in rocks.
Rock
the portion of the earths crust having no
definite shape and structure
To qualify as a construction material, stone
should have the following qualities:
Strength: Most types of
stone have more than
adequate compressive
strength. The shear
strength of stone,
however, is usually
about 1/10 of its
compressive strength
Hardness: hardness is
important when stone
is used for flooring,
paving, and stair
treads.
Hardness:
Talc, easily scratched with the thumb-nail: 1
Gypsum, scratched by the thumb-nail: 2
Calcite, not scratched by thumb-nail but easily cut by knife: 3
Fluorite, can be cut by knife with greater difficulty than calcite: 4
Apatite, can be cut only with difficulty by knife: 5
Orthoclase, can be cut w/ knife w/ great difficulty on thin edges: 6
Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass: 7
Topaz: 8
Sapphire: 9
Diamond: 10
Durability: Resistance
to the weathering
effects of rain, wind,
heat, and frost action
is necessary for
exterior stonework
Workability: A stones
hardness and grain
texture must allow it to
be quarried, cut and
shaped
Density: A stones
porosity affects its
ability to withstand
frost action and
staining
Density:
Porosity of Stones
Igneous rock
Sedimentary rock
Metamorphic rocks
Igneous rock is formed as a result of cooling of the
molten rock to solid state - It is nonporous, hard,
strong and durable
Igneous rock also known as
primary, un-stratified or eruptive
rocks
Granite: Consists mainly of
quartz, feldspar, mica, and other
colored minerals; colors include
black, gray, red, pink, brown,
buff, and green
133
Polished Surface
Rough Texture
134
Shape
Flat to Round
135
TYPES OF BUILDING STONES
Shale: Derived from clays and silts; weak along planes and is
in thin laminations - High in limestone and color varies from
black to red, yellow, and blue
TYPES OF BUILDING STONES
Limestone sedimentary
rock like dolomite, no
cleavage lines, low in
absorption, smooth, uniform
in structure & composition.
High compressive & tensile
strength
Used for:
wall & floor surfaces
Limestone with Granite
141
TYPES OF BUILDING STONES
Used for:
interior decorative stone
Metamorphic rocks has undergone a change in
structure, texture, or composition due to the
natural agencies, as heat and pressure,
especially when the rock becomes harder
and more crystalline, as marble and slate
Metamorphic rocks:
Marble
Slate
145
TYPES OF BUILDING STONES
Used for:
flooring
wall & column facing
Marble - Exterior Application
147
TYPES OF BUILDING STONES
Slate Rock
metamorphosis of clays
and shale's deposited in
layers. May be separated
into thin, tough sheets
called slates . Colors are
black, green red, grey, or
purple.
Used for:
flooring
window sills
stair treads & facing
Slate Flooring
149
Other Metamorphic Rocks Used In
Stone Masonry
Quartzite: It is a variety of stone composed of
mainly granular quartz cemented by silica, color
varies from brown, buff, tan, ivory, red through gray
151
Application Categories :
1. Paneling
2. Ashlars
3. Rubblework
4. Trim
Paneling thin slabs of stone cut to dimension
and thickness to cover back up walls and
provide finished exterior
Running Bond - a
masonry bond formed
when all units are laid in
stretcher position, with
a half-unit overlap
Paneling thin slabs of stone cut to dimension
and thickness to cover back up walls and
provide finished exterior
Corbel
Cornice
Drip Stone
Throating
Coping
Frieze
Spalls
Corbel
It is a piece of stone projected outside of a
wall to provide support to a structural
member of the Roof or Floor. DIAGRAM
Cornice
Its a large course of stone masonry provided
at the ceiling level of roof, projected outside
of wall.
Drip Stone
A projected stone with toothing at
undersurface. It is provided to through the
rain water off the wall.
Throating
The process of cutting groves in
Soffits of sills
Drip stones
Coping
String course etc.
Its purpose is to avoid the entry of rain water.
Coping
It is a special course provided at the top of a wall
to avoid entry of rain water in wall.
Frieze
The stone course provided below the cornice is
called frieze
Stone Finish
Rusticated - A term
describing stone masonry
with a recessed cut margin,
so a channel is formed
when the blocks are aligned
Sand Finish - A stone finish that is granular and
moderately smooth, varying with the
characteristics of the specific stone
Sawn Face - A term describing stone exhibiting
the marks left by the saw used to cut it
Rock Face - A stone finish with emphasized
face-plane shifts and rough corners,
exaggerating the natural look of the stone
Split Face - A stone finish exhibiting the natural
quarry texture resulting from splitting the stone
Flagstone - refers to flat stone slabs used for
flooring and horizontal surfacing.
Stone Pavers
Cobble stone - A stone used in paving. It may
be rectangular, or naturally rounded
Durex Blocks - Roughly cubed, usually granite
blocks used for paving
Lifting Appliances for Stone Masonry
Pin Lewis Chain Dogs
Dr. P. K. Bhuyan
NIT Rourkela
Definitions
Masonry
It is used for the work of a mason.
Mason is a person who built structures with construction materials.
Masonry Units
It is an artificially prepared regular shape block used in the masonry
works.
Like .
Brick in brick masonry
Stone block in stone masonry
Concrete block in Block masonry
History of Bricks:
Bricks are one of the oldest types of building blocks.
They are an ideal building material because they are relatively
cheap to make, very durable, and require little maintenance.
A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry
construction, usually laid using various kinds of mortar.
Bricks dated 10,000 years old were found in the Middle East.
Examples of the civilizations who used mud brick are the
ancient Egyptians and the Indus Valley Civilization, where it
was used exclusively. In particular, it is evident from the ruins
of Buhen, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
The first sun-dried bricks were made in Mesopotamia (what is
now Iraq), in the ancient city of Ur in about 4000 BC
Advantages of bricks :
191
Brick
Manufacturing : Clay is grinded
with 15% of water. The clay is
then pushed through the mould
base to take the shape. After
that, Clay is cut to get a standard
size and shape of brick using
wire.
Sometimes, bricks are produced
using big mould in which clay
will be pressed using hydraulic
machine or without hydraulic
press.
192
Molded or
Handmade
solid units
pressed into fiberglass, wood
or steel molds
used to be by hand, now
machines
sand or water coated molds
to release bricks
usually rougher surface and
edges
After bricks in form,
identification or
perforation to the bricks.
Drying : Wet unit bricks
are then dried by keeping
them in space or in a room
with controlled
temperature to make sure
that bricks will be
complete dry.
First, arrange the wood sheet in the Secondly, pull the wood handle and
machine, below the two holes. move it round so you can see the two
holes
Then fill the material on the two
holes, and manage it equally.
Then pull up the handle and Afterwards, get back to the old
move it around like this. position and push the handle
harder in down way.
Then pull it up... get the
shape!
Take the bricks out of the machine.
Arrange the bricks in a line.
Style of the bricks arrangement when they are wet.
Remove the wood stand and arrange it in
different styles..
Next morning, the water should Transport facilities of the
be applied to the brick and they material..
become more harder.
Different kinds of bricks.
PROPERTIES OF BRICKS
The most important properties of brick are
1) durability, 2) color, 3) texture, 4) size variation, 5)
compressive strength and 6) absorption.
Durability:
The durability of brick depends upon achieving incipient
fusion and partial vitrification during firing. Because
compressive strength and absorption values are also related
to the firing temperatures, these properties, together with
saturation coefficient, are currently taken as predictors of
durability in brick specifications. However, because of
differences in raw materials and manufacturing methods, a
single set of values of compressive strength and absorption
will not reliably indicate the degree of firing.
Texture:
Coatings and Glazes : Many brick have smooth or sand-
finished textures produced by the dies or molds used in
forming.
A smooth texture, results from pressure exerted by the
steel die as the clay passes through it in the extrusion
process. Most extruded brick have the die skin removed
and the surface further treated to produce other textures
using devices that cut, scratch, roll, brush. Brick may be
tumbled before or after firing to achieve an antique
appearance.
Color:
The color of fired clay depends upon its chemical composition,
the firing temperatures and the method of firing control.
Of all the oxides commonly found in clays, iron probably has
the greatest effect on color. Regardless of its natural color, clay
containing iron in practically any form will exhibit a shade of
red when exposed to an oxidizing fire because of the formation
of ferrous oxide. When fired in a reducing atmosphere, the
same clay will assume a dark (or black) hue. Creating a
reducing atmosphere in the kiln is known as flashing or
reduction firing.
Given the same raw material and manufacturing method,
darker colors are associated with higher firing temperatures,
lower absorption values and higher compressive strength
values. However, for products made from different raw
materials, there is no direct relationship between strength and
color or absorption and color.
Size Variation
Because clays shrink during both drying and firing,
allowances are made in the forming process to achieve the
desired size of the finished brick. Both drying shrinkage and
firing shrinkage vary for different clays, usually falling within
the following ranges:
Drying shrinkage: 2 to 4 percent
Firing shrinkage: 2.5 to 4 percent
Firing shrinkage increases with higher temperatures, which
produce darker shades. When a wide range of colors is
desired, some variation between the sizes of the dark and
light units is inevitable.
To obtain products of uniform size, manufacturers control
factors contributing to shrinkage. Because of normal
variations in raw materials and temperature variations within
kilns, absolute uniformity is impossible. Consequently,
specifications for brick allow size variations.
Compressive Strength and Absorption
Both compressive strength and absorption are affected
by properties of the clay, method of manufacture and
degree of firing.
For a given clay and method of manufacture, higher
compressive strength values and lower absorption
values are associated with higher firing temperatures.
Although absorption and compressive strength can be
controlled by manufacturing and firing methods, these
properties depend largely upon the properties of the
raw materials.
Tests on bricks:
Clay Masonry Units -ASTM C 67, Standard Test Methods
for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile
Procedures for the sampling and testing of brick and
structural clay tile.
Tests include modulus of rupture, compressive strength,
absorption, saturation coefficient, effect of freezing and
thawing, efflorescence, initial rate of absorption and
determination of weight, size, length change, and void
area.
Brick
British Specification
Recommends
LENGTH (L)
Minimum Length = 8-5/8
Maximum Length = 8-7/8 L
WIDTH (W) D
Minimum Width = 4-1/8
Maximum Width = 4-1/4
W
DEPTH (D)
Minimum Depth = 1-15/16
Maximum Depth = 2-15/16
Brick Positions:
Stretcher
Header
Soldier
Shiner
Rowlock
Sailor
Definitions
Frog
Arrises
The edges formed by the
intersection of plane surfaces of a
brick are called arrises.
Frog
The depression provided in the
face of a brick during its
manufacturing is called the frog. Courses
Course
each horizontal layer of bricks
laid in mortar is called course.
Arises
Definitions
Quoins Perpends
Perpends
Quoin
Stretcher
Brick bats
Brick bats are prepared by cutting standard brick
across width.
They are of four types
Three quarter bat
Half or square bat
Quarter bat
Bevelled bat
Definitions
Facing
The external face of wall is called facing.
Backing
The unexposed or internal face of wall is called backing.
Hearting
The interior portion between facing and backing is
called hearting.
Definitions
Reveals
It is the verticle sides of door or window opening from
outside is called reveals.
Jambs
It is the verticle sides of door or window opening from
inside is called jambs.
Soffit
The under surface of a lintel is called Soffit. Its the
horizontal surface.
Sill
The horizontal surface at the bottom side of a door or
window opening is called sill.
Definitions
Column
The isolated vertical load bearing member whose cross sectional
dimensions are much lesser then its length is called column.
Pillar
The isolated vertical non load bearing member used for ornamental
purpose or as memorial is called pillar.
Pier
The isolated vertical load bearing members used as an intermediate
support of a series of arches is called pier.
Pilaster
The thickened vertical load bearing member strengthening a wall is
called pilaster.
Stanchion
The vertical load bearing member constructed of rolled steel
section is called stanchion.
Definitions
Mortar
The mixture of binding material and fine aggregate
forming a workable paste is called mortar.
Grout or slurry
The thin paste of cement is called grout or slurry. It is
used to fill the joints.
Lintel
A small horizontal member to span up small opening is
called lintel.
Copping
It is provided at the top of a wall to avoid dampness.
Classification of Brick Masonry
According to type of Mortar
Pucca Masonry
Pucca & Kutcha Masonry
According to types of bricks
First class brick Masonry
Second class brick Masonry
Third class brick Masonry
Kutcha Masonry
Mortar Functions
Provides for full bearing
Seals between masonry units
Adheres / bonds masonry units
Aesthetics
20% of wall area
Affects the color and texture of masonry wall
Mortar specified in testing standard ASTM C-270
Mortar Ingredients
Portland Cement
Hydrated Lime
Sand
Water
Admixtures (optional)
Bond in brick masonry
It is the arrangement of bricks in each layer to avoid the continuity of
vertical joints in any two adjacent courses.
NECESSITY OF BOND
Bond in brickwork is provided for the following reasons
To break the continuity of vertical joints in consecutive courses.
To ensure longitudinal and lateral strength of the masonry work.
To distribute the load uniformly over the structural mass.
To ensure the quality of work.
To ensure systematic work
To provide good esthetics
To economize the work.
REQUIREMENTS OF a GOOD BOND IN BRICK WORK
Bricks should be uniform in size.
Mortar thickness should be less than 10mm
Vertical joints in alternate courses should be in a single plumb line.
Header should be exactly in the middle of stretcher in two consecutive
courses.
Brick bats should be avoided.
Types of bonds
Following are the different types of bonds used in
brick masonry work.
BONDS IN MASONRY WALLS
Header bond
Stretcher bond
English bond
Flemish bond
Facing bond
Dutch bond
BONDS IN MASONRY COLUMNS
English bond
Flemish bond
Wall Junctions
The places where the walls of same or different widths meets or crosses
each other are called wall junctions.
TYPES OF WALL JUNCTIONS
Two types
Straight junctions
Squint junctions
Straight junctions
The junctions formed when two walls crossing each other at right
angle.
Corner junctions
Tee junctions
Cross junctions
Squint quoins
The corner formed when two walls are meeting at some angle.
Obtuse quoins
Acute quoins
Masons tools in Bick masonry
Trowel
Brick hammer
Lines and pins
Spirit level and water level
Straight edge
Plumb bob
Mason;s square or guniya
Tape (steel)
General Principles and precautions in
Brick Masonry
English bond should be used if not specified.
Bricks used should be well burnt and should be uniform in
size, shape and colour.
For facing work selected bricks should be used.
Curing of bricks should be done for at least 2 hours.
Bricks should be laid with frogs pointing upward or as
specified by the Engineer In charge.
Mortar used in brick masonry should be of good quality.
In walls greater than 9 or 0.225 m width hearting joints
should be filled properly.
Brick bats are avoided.
Reinforced brick Masonry
The brick masonry done by embedding reinforcement
in rich cement mortar is called Reinforced brick
masonry.
Laying of bricks
Defects and Maintenance of Brick
Masonry
DEFECTS
Due to Substandard materials
Due to corrosion of metals
Due to effect of sulphates
Due to frost action
Due to efflorescence
MAINTENANCE
Cleaning brick masonry
Removing efflorescence
Re-conditioning the brick masonry
Repainting the brick masonry
More Bonds
1. Header bond
2. Stretcher bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond
5. Raking bond
6. English Cross bond
7. Hoop Iron Bond
8. Facing bond
9. Dutch bond
10. Monk bond
11. Brick on edge bond
12. Silverlocks bond
Header Bond
3/4
3/4
Bed
Joint
Rowlock -
laid on face,
end visible
266
Brick work
Brick
arrangement in
brick work
267
Brick Work
Brick
arrangement in
brick work
268
Brick Work
Brick
arrangement in
brick work
269
Brick Work
Brick laying
Material that was used in
mortar (mix of cement or
lime with sand or both
Ratio; binder : sand = 1:3
Thickness or mortar
normally in range 6.5mm -
9mm
270
Brick Work
Plastering
These have been done after brick lying finishing. The
purpose is to get a smooth surface and uniformity in color.
The wall should scratch to get a rough surface that will
easy when plastering work
Materials that was used : lime, cement Portland, gypsum
Plastering work should be in two layers, which one base
layer and finishing layer.
Base layer ; cement :Lime : sand = 1:2:8-9 @ 1:1: 5-6 @
cement : sand = 1:3 @ gysum : sand = 1:1-3 @ gypsum : lime
: sand = 1:3:7-9
Finishing layer; lime : gypsum = 1: 0.25 - 0.5
271
Advantages of brick
Walk way
272
Advantages of brick
273
The
End
278
Considerations in Choosing
Brick
Molding process
Color
Size
Grade
Type
However, most brick is.
EXTRUDED pushed through a dye & then cut by wire kinda like square toothpaste
hollow core
formed into a column and cut to size with wires
usually smoother surface and finer edges
Brick Masonry - Sizes and Shapes
No standard size
Normal coursing - 3 bricks h = 8 (including
mortar joints so it aligns with 8 block (CMU)
Larger sizes mostly for economy
Custom Shapes & Colors ($$$$$)
Sizes:
MODULAR 8
STANDARD 75/8
THREE-INCH
OVERSIZE
ROMAN
NORMAN
SIX-INCH JUMBO
JUMBO
Bitumen
&
Desirable Properties
By
Dr. P. K. Bhuyan
NIT Rourkela
Overview
Pavement materials
284
Bitumen
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the
distillation of petroleum crude
285
Bitumen
286
Liquid Bitumen
287
1. Normal Bitumen
Production
The portion of bituminous material present in petroleum
may widely differ depending on the source
288
Petroleum distillation Flow Chart
289
Petroleum distillation
290
Types of Distillation Processes
Fractional distillation
In the fractional distillation the various volatile
constituents are separated at successively higher
temperatures without substantial chemical change
Destructive distillation
The material undergoes chemical changes under the
application of extreme heat and pressure
291
Types of Distillation Processes
Steam distillation
1. Steam distillation is employed to produce
steam refined petroleum bitumen without
causing chemical change
293
Desirable Properties of Bitumen
The bitumen should be ductile and not brittle
294
2. Cutback Bitumen
Bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced
by a volatile dilutent
298
Continue.
299
3. Bituminous Emulsion
A liquid product in which substantial amount of
bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in
an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of one
or more suitable materials.
300
Continue.
301
Continue.
Bituminous Emulsion
302
Continue.
303
Continue.
Breaking of Emulsion
When applied on road, breaks down and the binder starts
binding the aggregates, though the full binding power develops
slowly as and when the water evaporates.
304
Quality Control Tests
Bitumen (Normal)
1. Penetration
2. Ductility
3. Softening point
4. Specific gravity
5. Loss on heating
6. Flash & Fire point
7. Viscosity
8. Solubility
Modified Bitumen (PMB, CRMB etc)
1. Elastic Recovery
2. Separation Difference
3. Tests on TFOT residue
305
Continue.
Cutback Bitumen
1. Viscosity test using specified orifice
2. Penetration test
3. Ductility test
4. Solubility test
5. Flash point test
306
Flexible Pavements
307
BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
CONSTRUCTION
Bituminous construction are classified
into four categories
Interface Treatments
Thin Bituminous Surfacing
Bituminous Surface Courses
Bituminous Binder Courses
308
INTERFACE TREATMENTS
Prime Coat
Tack Coat
Crack Prevention Courses
309
PURPOSE OF PRIMING
To plug the capillary
voids
To coat and bond
loose materials on
the surface
To harden or
toughen the surface
To promote adhesion
between granular
and the bituminous
layer
310
TACK COAT
311
WRONG PRACTICE OF TACK COAT
312
MECHANICAL SPRAYER FOR
TACK COAT
313
INSUFFICIENT TACK COAT
314
CRACKED SURFACE
Map/Alligator Cracking
Transverse Cracking
315
BITUMINOUS SURFACE DRESSING
(BSD)
BSD is provided over an existing bituminous
or granular surface to serve as thin wearing
coat. This may be one coat or two coats.
316
FAILURE OF SURFACE
DRESSING
317
MODERN SURFACE DRESSING SPRAYER
318
SEAL COAT
A. Liquid Seal Coat: comprising of a layer of
binder followed by a cover of stone
chipping
319
BITUMINOUS SURFACE COURSES
320
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE (BC)
BC is a Dense Graded Bituminous
Mix used as Wearing Course for
Heavily Trafficked Roads
321
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE (BC)
BC Mix consists of Coarse
Aggregates, Fine Aggregates, Filler
and Binder blended as per Marshall
Mix Design
322
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE (BC)
Quality control operations involved are:
Design of mix in laboratory, and
control of mixing, laying and
rolling temperatures
Density, Marshall Stability, Flow,
Air Voids, Bitumen Content, radiation
of aggregates are controlled
Riding quality is a control
323
Freshly Laid BC layer
325
SDBC LAYER
326
COMPACTION OF BITUMINOUS MIXES
327
COMPACTION OF MIXES contd
329
SEGREGATION IN MIX
330
SEGREGATION IN BM MIX
331
PROPER LOADING
332
GOOD PAVEMENT SURFACE
333
DENSE BITUMINOUS MACADAM (DBM)
DBM is Closely Graded
DBM is used as a Binder Course for
pavements subjected to heavy
traffic
Hydrated Lime or Cement shall be
used as filler, if the mix fails to
meet the water sensitivity
requirement
334
Wet Mix Macadam
Laying and compacting clean, crushed, graded aggregate
and granular material, premixed with water, to a dense mass
on prepared sub-grade or existing pavement
Thickness of single compacted Wet Mix Macadam layer shall
not be less than 75 mm
Coarse aggregate shall be crushed stone
If crushed gravel is used, not less than 90% by Wt of gravel
pieces retained on 4.75 mm sieve shall have at least two
fractured faces
If water absorption value of coarse aggregate is greater than
2%, the soundness test shall be carried out as per
IS:2386(Part-5)
335
TIMBER
AS
A BUILDING MATERIAL
Dr. P. K. Bhuyan
NIT Rourkela
INTRODUCTION
GROWTH OF TREES
DURABILITY
STRENGTH
REFRACTIVENESS
IS SPECIFICATION
1) PROHIBITED DEFECTS
2) PERMISSIBLE DEFECTS
DEFECTS AND DECAY IN TIMBER
heart
pith
juvenile
Insect attack
Shrinkage
Durability
Girdling
Coating with thick layers of moisture proof substance
such as coal tar, bituminous paint,
paraffin wax.
Water seasoning
METHODS OF SEASONING
SEASONING OF TIMBER
Air Seasoning
Kiln seasoning
Other methods of seasoning- Chemical Seasoning
Air Seasoning
Air Seasoning
With this process the timber is roughly sawn to size
and stacked using spacers called stickers, with the
timber stacked in the open air.
Vertical spacing achieved by using timber battens
(25mm) of the same species. The piling sticks
should be spaced close enough to prevent bowing
(600 to 900 mm centres) This allows the free
movement of air.
The stack should be protected from the direct
influence of the elements.
The ends of the beams must be painted to prevent
splitting.
Air Seasoning
Advantages
No expensive equipment needed
Small labour cost once stack is made
Environmentally friendly- uses little energy
Disadvantages
Slow drying rate
Large area of space required for a lot of timber
Only dries the timber to approximately 20% M.C. so
leaving it open to some insect and fungal attacks
while it is only suitable for outdoor joinery
Kiln Seasoning
There are two main types of kiln used in artificial seasoning
Compartmental Kilns
Progressive Kilns.
MC = 12%
Moisture Content
Seasoning and Shrinkage
Seasoning will cause dramatic
changes such as increase in
strength but also distortion and
shrinkage.
BEAMS
TRUSSES
RAFTERS
JOISTS IN FLOORS
DOORS FRAME AND SHUTTERS
WINDOWS FRAME AND SHUTTERS
STAIR CASES
POLES
PILES
COLUMNS
WOOD PRODUCTS OF TIMBER
Veneers
Plywood
Particle board
Fiber boards
Batten boards : Block boards and laminated boards
BAMBOO AND CANE AS AN
ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OFTIMBER
BAMBOO AS PLYWOOD
BAMBOO AS VEENERS
BAMBOO AS PARTICLE BOARDS
BAMBOO AS BATTENS BOARDS
BAMBOO AS POST etc.
BAMBOO AN ENDOGENOUS
TREE
BAMBOO A BUILDING MATERIAL
BAMBOO AS FLOORING
MATERIAL
TIMBER STRUCTURES
TIMBER FLOOR, CEILING,WALL
AND FURNITURES.
TIMBER AS A STRUCTURAL
MEMBER
CONCLUSION
FOREST UTILIZATION
THE GENERATION OF BY PRODUCTS
DISPOSAL OF WASTE
RESOURCE DEPLETION
GLOBAL WARMING
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUNDS RESPONSIBLE
FOR ACID RAIN
FERROUS METAL
AND
NON-FERROUS METAL
Dr. P. K. Bhuyan
NIT Rourkela
FERROUS METAL
- Iron
- Cast Iron
- Steel
- Stainless Steel
- Wrought Iron
NON-FERROUS METAL
- Aluminum
- Bronze
- Brass
- Copper
- Lead
IRON
CAST IRON
CAST IRON
APPLICATION:
- Piping & Fittings
- Ornamental Ironwork
- Hardware
- Base Metal for Porcelain Enameled Plumbing Fixtures
- Floor & Wall Brackets for Railings
- Circular Stairs
- Manhole Cover
- Gratings
FERROUS METALS
WROUGHT IRON
WROUGHT IRON
Literally means worked iron
APPLICATION:
- Piping & Fittings for Plumbing,
Heating & Air-conditioning
- Ornamental Ironwork
FERROUS METALS
GALVANIZED IRON
APPLICATION:
- Metal Decking
- Roofing & Accessories
- Ceiling Framing
- Wall Framing
- Piping
FERROUS METALS
STEEL
Types of Steel:
Carbon Steel
Alloy Steel
- Stainless Steel
- HSLA Steel (high-strength low-alloy)
- Weathering Steel
FERROUS METALS
Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel
APPLICATION:
- Structural Steel
- Concrete Reinforcement
- Decking and Panels
- Roofing & Accessories
- Windows & Doors
- Hardware
FERROUS METALS
Carbon Steel
APPLICATION:
- Structural Steel
I-beam
W-shape
S-shape
Channels
Angles
Plates
Pipes & Tubing
FERROUS METALS
Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
APPLICATION:
- Exterior Wall Finishes
- Interior Wall Finishes
- Railings
- Signage
- Doors & Windows
- Hardware
FERROUS METALS
HSLA Steel
APPLICATION:
- Reinforcement for Pre-stressed Concrete
- High-strength Bolts
- Special Structural Steel
- Cables for Elevators
FERROUS METALS
Weathering Steel
Weathering Steel
Tools Steel
Used as structural
framing like the high
strength aluminum alloys
and secondary building
elements such as
windows, doors, roofing,
flashing, trim and hard
wares.
Copper
Ductile, malleable and bright reddish brown color with
high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Lead
Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal, also considered to
be one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish white
color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull grayish
color when it is exposed to air and is a shiny chrome
silver when melted into a liquid. .
Lead pipe in
Roman baths
Tungsten carbide, or tungsten semicarbide, is a
chemical compound containing tungsten and carbon,
similar to titanium carbide. Tungsten carbide is often
simply called carbide.
METAL JOINERY
Dr. P. K. Bhuyan
NIT Rourkela
What is geo-synthetic?
A geo-synthetic has been defined by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Committee on Geo-
synthetics as A planar product manufactured
from polymeric material used with soil, rock,
earth, or other geotechnical engineering
related material as an integral part of a man-
made project, structure, or system.
WOVEN GEOTEXTILE
1. Geotextiles
2. Geogrids
3. Geonets
4. Geomembranes
5. Geosynthetic clay liners
6. Geocells/geo web members
7. Geofoam
8. Geocomposites
Geotextiles
Geotextiles are defined as any permeable textile used with foundation soil, rock,
earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related material as an integral part of a
human-made project, structure, or system.
CHARACTERISTICS
Geotextile-Geonet Composites
Geotextile Geomembrane Composiets
Geotextile Geogrid Composiets
Geomembrane Geogrid Composite
Geotextile-Polymer Core Composite
Advantages of Geo-synthetics
Cheaper in poduct cost, transport and installation.
Can be designed (predictability)
Can be installed quickly with flexibility to construct during short period.
Consistent over a wide range of soils
Space Savings
Material Quality Control - More homogeneous than soil and aggregates.
Better Construction Quality Control at site
Easy Material Deployment
Less Environmentally Sensitive
Improved performance and extended life
Increased safety factor
Compatible with field conditions
Increased service life of flexible pavement section by a factor of 2.5 to 3.0 for weak
subgrades (CBR 2%) and by 2.0 to 3.3 for moderate subgrades (CBR 4.2 to 4.5%)
Increase in allowable load bearing capacity by 40 to 50% for subgrade CBR>3 and
well over 50% for subgrade CBR<3
Functions of Geosynthetics
Geo-synthetics can perform one or several functions to
improve mechanical or hydraulic behaviour of the
structure
The basic functions performed by geo-synthetics are:
Separation
Filtration
Drainage
Reinforcement
Barrier
Functions of Geosynthetics
Separation
Filtration
Natural Soil
Geo-textile
Water Flow Direction
Granular Soil
Functions of Geosynthetics
Reinforcement
Drainage
Functions of Geosynthetics
Barrier
FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALS:
A Comparative Review.
Geogrid YES
Geonet YES
Geomembrane YES
GCL YES
Geofoam YES
1. Grab test
2. Seam testing
3. Puncture test
4. CBR push through test
5. Tear test
6. Diaphragm bursting strength test
7. Cone drop test
8. Dry sieve test
9. Gradient test
Application in Civil Engineering
Construction
Shallow foundations
In usual construction practice, one or
more layers of geosynthetic are placed
inside a controlled granular fill
beneath the footings. Such reinforced
foundation soils provide improved
load-bearing capacity and reduced
settlements by distributing the
imposed loads over a wider area of
weak subsoil.
In the conventional construction
techniques without any use of the
reinforcement, a thick granular layer
is needed which may be costly or may
not be possible, especially in the sites
of limited availability of good-quality
granular materials.
Geosynthetic products like
Paralink as shown in Figure (a)
can be very effective for use over
soft foundation soils as well as
over voids and piles (Fig. (b)).
The ideal reinforcing pattern has geosynthetic layers placed
horizontally below the footing, which becomes progressively
steeper farther from the footing (Fig. (a)). It means that the
reinforcement should be placed in the direction of the major
principal strain. However, for practical simplicity,
geosynthetic sheets are often laid horizontally as shown in
Figure (b).
Filters and Drains
Geosynthetics are being increasingly employed either as filters, in
the form of geotextiles, in conjunction with granular materials
and/or pipes (Fig. (a)), or as both filters and drains in the form of
geocomposites (Fig. (b)).
Initial Sand
Embankment Blanket
Band
Soft drains
Clay
Layer
Firm
Soil
478
Other Applications In Railway
USES OF GEO-GRID
CONCLUSION
The rapid growth in the geosynthetic market the
world over has lent confidence to the civil engineer
in their use. One should not be tempted to imagine
geosynthetics are magical materials to yield
excellent results, without due consideration of the
problem or soil geosynthetic interaction. Such a
blind approach could lead to disaster. The future
appears to be more promising with stronger & more
durable geosynthetics emerging into the market
along with fibrous system to be mixed with soil for
giving more hope as well as challenge to the Civil
engineer in the years to come