Chapter 3

Measures of Central Tendency
Measure of central tendency

A value that represents a typical, or central, entry of a
data set.
Most common measures of central tendency:
Mean
Median
Mode
Larson/Farber 4th ed. 1

Measure of Central Tendency: Mean
Mean (average)
The sum of all the data entries divided by the number
of entries.
Sigma notation: x = add all of the data entries (x)
in the data set.
x
Population mean:
N
x
Sample mean: x
n

Example: Finding a Sample Mean
The prices (in dollars) for a sample of roundtrip flights

from Chicago, Illinois to Cancun, Mexico are listed.
What is the mean price of the flights?
872 432 397 427 388 782 397

Solution: Finding a Sample Mean
872 432 397 427 388 782 397
The sum of the flight prices is

x = 872 + 432 + 397 + 427 + 388 + 782 + 397 = 3695
To find the mean price, divide the sum of the prices

by the number of prices in the sample
x 3695
x 527.9
n 7
The mean price of the flights is about $527.90.

Measure of Central Tendency: Median
Median
The value that lies in the middle of the data when the
data set is ordered.
Measures the center of an ordered data set by dividing
it into two equal parts.
If the data set has an
odd number of entries: median is the middle data
entry.
even number of entries: median is the mean of
the two middle data entries.
Example: Finding the Median

Find the median of the flight prices.
872 432 397 427 388 782 397

Solution: Finding the Median
872 432 397 427 388 782 397
First order the data.

388 397 397 427 432 782 872
There are seven entries (an odd number), the median

is the middle, or fourth, data entry.
The median price of the flights is $427.

Example: Finding the Median
The flight priced at $432 is no longer available. What is

the median price of the remaining flights?
872 397 427 388 782 397

Solution: Finding the Median
872 397 427 388 782 397

First order the data.
388 397 397 427 782 872
There are six entries (an even number), the median is

the mean of the two middle entries.
397 427
Median 412
2
The median price of the flights is $412.

Measure of Central Tendency: Mode
Mode
The data entry that occurs with the greatest frequency.
If no entry is repeated the data set has no mode.
If two entries occur with the same greatest frequency,
each entry is a mode (bimodal).

Example: Finding the Mode

Find the mode of the flight prices.
872 432 397 427 388 782 397

Solution: Finding the Mode
872 432 397 427 388 782 397
Ordering the data helps to find the mode.

388 397 397 427 432 782 872
The entry of 397 occurs twice, whereas the other

data entries occur only once.
The mode of the flight prices is $397.

Example: Finding the Mode
At a political debate a sample of audience members was

asked to name the political party to which they belong.
Their responses are shown in the table. What is the
mode of the responses?
Political Party Frequency, f
Democrat 34
Republican 56
Other 21
Did not respond 9

Solution: Finding the Mode
Political Party Frequency, f

Democrat 34
Republican 56
Other 21
Did not respond 9
The mode is Republican (the response occurring with

the greatest frequency). In this sample there were more
Republicans than people of any other single affiliation.

Comparing the Mean, Median, and Mode
All three measures describe a typical entry of a data

set.
Advantage of using the mean:
The mean is a reliable measure because it takes
into account every entry of a data set.
Disadvantage of using the mean:
Greatly affected by outliers (a data entry that is far
removed from the other entries in the data set).

Example: Comparing the Mean, Median,
and Mode
Find the mean, median, and mode of the sample ages of
a class shown. Which measure of central tendency best
describes a typical entry of this data set? Are there any
outliers?
Ages in a class
20 20 20 20 20 20 21
21 21 21 22 22 22 23
23 23 23 24 24 65

Solution: Comparing the Mean, Median,
and Mode
Ages in a class
20 20 20 20 20 20 21
21 21 21 22 22 22 23
23 23 23 24 24 65
x 20 20 ... 24 65
Mean: x 23.8 years
n 20
21 22
Median: 21.5 years
2
Mode: 20 years (the entry occurring with the

greatest frequency)
and Mode
Mean 23.8 years Median = 21.5 years Mode = 20 years
The mean takes every entry into account, but is

influenced by the outlier of 65.
The median also takes every entry into account, and
it is not affected by the outlier.
In this case the mode exists, but it doesn't appear to
represent a typical entry.

and Mode
Sometimes a graphical comparison can help you decide
which measure of central tendency best represents a
data set.
In this case, it appears that the median best describes

the data set.
Weighted Mean
Weighted Mean
The mean of a data set whose entries have varying
weights.
( x w)
x where w is the weight of each entry x
w

Example: Finding a Weighted Mean
You are taking a class in which your grade is

determined from five sources: 50% from your test
mean, 15% from your midterm, 20% from your final
exam, 10% from your computer lab work, and 5% from
your homework. Your scores are 86 (test mean), 96
(midterm), 82 (final exam), 98 (computer lab), and 100
(homework). What is the weighted mean of your
scores? If the minimum average for an A is 90, did you
get an A?

Solution: Finding a Weighted Mean
Source Score, x Weight, w xw
Test Mean 86 0.50 86(0.50)= 43.0
Midterm 96 0.15 96(0.15) = 14.4
Final Exam 82 0.20 82(0.20) = 16.4
Computer Lab 98 0.10 98(0.10) = 9.8
Homework 100 0.05 100(0.05) = 5.0
w = 1 (xw) = 88.6
( x w) 88.6
x 88.6
w 1
Your weighted mean for the course is 88.6. You did not
get an A.
Mean of Grouped Data
Mean of a Frequency Distribution

Approximated by
( x f )
x n f
n
where x and f are the midpoints and frequencies of a
class, respectively

Finding the Mean of a Frequency
Distribution
In Words In Symbols
1. Find the midpoint of each (lower limit)+(upper limit)
x
class. 2
2. Find the sum of the

products of the midpoints ( x f )
and the frequencies.
3. Find the sum of the n f
frequencies.
4. Find the mean of the ( x f )
x
frequency distribution. n
Example: Find the Mean of a Frequency
Distribution
Use the frequency distribution to approximate the mean
number of minutes that a sample of Internet subscribers
spent online during their most recent session.
Class Midpoint Frequency, f
7 18 12.5 6
19 30 24.5 10
31 42 36.5 13
43 54 48.5 8
55 66 60.5 5
67 78 72.5 6
79 90 84.5 2
Solution: Find the Mean of a Frequency
Distribution
Class Midpoint, x Frequency, f (xf)
7 18 12.5 6 12.56 = 75.0
19 30 24.5 10 24.510 = 245.0
31 42 36.5 13 36.513 = 474.5
43 54 48.5 8 48.58 = 388.0
55 66 60.5 5 60.55 = 302.5
67 78 72.5 6 72.56 = 435.0
79 90 84.5 2 84.52 = 169.0
n = 50 (xf) = 2089.0
( x f ) 2089
x 41.8 minutes
n 50
The Shape of Distributions
Symmetric Distribution
A vertical line can be drawn through the middle of
a graph of the distribution and the resulting halves
are approximately mirror images.

Uniform Distribution (rectangular)

All entries or classes in the distribution have equal
or approximately equal frequencies.
Symmetric.

Skewed Left Distribution (negatively skewed)

The tail of the graph elongates more to the left.
The mean is to the left of the median.

Skewed Right Distribution (positively skewed)

The tail of the graph elongates more to the right.
The mean is to the right of the median.

Range
Range
The difference between the maximum and minimum
data entries in the set.
The data must be quantitative.
Range = (Max. data entry) (Min. data entry)

Example: Finding the Range
A corporation hired 10 graduates. The starting salaries

for each graduate are shown. Find the range of the
starting salaries.
Starting salaries (1000s of dollars)
41 38 39 45 47 41 44 41 37 42

Solution: Finding the Range
Ordering the data helps to find the least and greatest

salaries.
37 38 39 41 41 41 42 44 45 47
minimum maximum
Range = (Max. salary) (Min. salary)

= 47 37 = 10
The range of starting salaries is 10 or $10,000.

Deviation, Variance, and Standard
Deviation
Deviation
The difference between the data entry, x, and the
mean of the data set.
Population data set:
Deviation of x = x
Sample data set:
Deviation of x = x x

Example: Finding the Deviation

for each graduate are shown. Find the deviation of the
starting salaries.
41 38 39 45 47 41 44 41 37 42
Solution:
First determine the mean starting salary.
x 415
41.5
N 10

Solution: Finding the Deviation
Determine the Salary ($1000s), x Deviation: x

deviation for each 41 41 41.5 = 0.5
data entry. 38 38 41.5 = 3.5
39 39 41.5 = 2.5
45 45 41.5 = 3.5
47 47 41.5 = 5.5
41 41 41.5 = 0.5
44 44 41.5 = 2.5
41 41 41.5 = 0.5
37 37 41.5 = 4.5
42 42 41.5 = 0.5
x = 415 (x ) = 0
Deviation
Population Variance
( x ) 2
Sum of squares, SSx

2
N
Population Standard Deviation
( x ) 2

2

Finding the Population Variance &
Standard Deviation
In Words In Symbols
1. Find the mean of the x

population data set. N
2. Find deviation of each x
entry.
3. Square each deviation. (x )2
4. Add to get the sum of SSx = (x )2
squares.

Finding the Population Variance &
Standard Deviation
In Words In Symbols
5. Divide by N to get the ( x ) 2
population variance. 2
N
6. Find the square root to get
( x ) 2
the population standard
deviation. N

Example: Finding the Population
Standard Deviation
for each graduate are shown. Find the population
variance and standard deviation of the starting salaries.
41 38 39 45 47 41 44 41 37 42
Recall = 41.5.

Solution: Finding the Population
Standard Deviation
Determine SSx Salary, x Deviation: x Squares: (x )2
N = 10 41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
38 38 41.5 = 3.5 (3.5)2 = 12.25
39 39 41.5 = 2.5 (2.5)2 = 6.25
45 45 41.5 = 3.5 (3.5)2 = 12.25
47 47 41.5 = 5.5 (5.5)2 = 30.25
41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
44 44 41.5 = 2.5 (2.5)2 = 6.25
41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
37 37 41.5 = 4.5 (4.5)2 = 20.25
42 42 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
(x ) = 0 SSx = 88.5
Solution: Finding the Population
Standard Deviation
Population Variance
( x ) 2
88.5
8.9
2
N 10
Population Standard Deviation
2 8.85 3.0
The population standard deviation is about 3.0, or $3000.

Deviation
Sample Variance
( x x ) 2
s
2
n 1
Sample Standard Deviation
( x x ) 2
s s2
n 1

Finding the Sample Variance & Standard
Deviation
In Words In Symbols
1. Find the mean of the x
x
sample data set. n
2. Find deviation of each xx

entry.
3. Square each deviation. ( x x )2
4. Add to get the sum of SS x ( x x ) 2
squares.

Finding the Sample Variance & Standard
Deviation
In Words In Symbols
5. Divide by n 1 to get the ( x x ) 2
sample variance. s2
n 1
6. Find the square root to get
the sample standard ( x x ) 2
s
deviation. n 1

Example: Finding the Sample Standard
Deviation
The starting salaries are for the Chicago branches of a
corporation. The corporation has several other branches,
and you plan to use the starting salaries of the Chicago
branches to estimate the starting salaries for the larger
population. Find the sample standard deviation of the
starting salaries.
41 38 39 45 47 41 44 41 37 42

Solution: Finding the Sample Standard
Deviation
Determine SSx Salary, x Deviation: x Squares: (x )2
n = 10 41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
38 38 41.5 = 3.5 (3.5)2 = 12.25
39 39 41.5 = 2.5 (2.5)2 = 6.25
45 45 41.5 = 3.5 (3.5)2 = 12.25
47 47 41.5 = 5.5 (5.5)2 = 30.25
41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
44 44 41.5 = 2.5 (2.5)2 = 6.25
41 41 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
37 37 41.5 = 4.5 (4.5)2 = 20.25
42 42 41.5 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
(x ) = 0 SSx = 88.5
Solution: Finding the Sample Standard
Deviation
Sample Variance
( x x ) 88.5 2
s 9.8
2
n 1 10 1
Sample Standard Deviation
88.5
s s 3.1 2
9
The sample standard deviation is about 3.1, or $3100.
Interpreting Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is a measure of the typical amount

an entry deviates from the mean.
The more the entries are spread out, the greater the
standard deviation.

Interpreting Standard Deviation:
Empirical Rule (68 95 99.7 Rule)
For data with a (symmetric) bell-shaped distribution, the

standard deviation has the following characteristics:
About 68% of the data lie within one standard

deviation of the mean.
About 95% of the data lie within two standard
deviations of the mean.
About 99.7% of the data lie within three standard
deviations of the mean.

Interpreting Standard Deviation:
Empirical Rule (68 95 99.7 Rule)
99.7% within 3 standard deviations
95% within 2 standard deviations
68% within 1
standard deviation
34% 34%
2.35% 2.35%
13.5% 13.5%
x 3s x 2s x s x xs x 2s x 3s

Example: Using the Empirical Rule
In a survey conducted by the National Center for Health

Statistics, the sample mean height of women in the
United States (ages 20-29) was 64 inches, with a sample
standard deviation of 2.71 inches. Estimate the percent
of the women whose heights are between 64 inches and
69.42 inches.

Solution: Using the Empirical Rule
Because the distribution is bell-shaped, you can use
the Empirical Rule.
34%
13.5%
55.87 58.58 61.29 64 66.71 69.42 72.13

x 3s x 2s x s x xs x 2s x 3s
34% + 13.5% = 47.5% of women are between 64 and

69.42 inches tall.
Standard Deviation for Grouped Data
Sample standard deviation for a frequency distribution
( x x ) 2 f where n= f (the number of

s
n 1 entries in the data set)
When a frequency distribution has classes, estimate the

sample mean and standard deviation by using the
midpoint of each class.

Example: Finding the Standard Deviation
for Grouped Data
You collect a random sample of the Number of Children in

50 Households
number of children per household in 1 3 1 1 1
a region. Find the sample mean and 1 2 2 1 0
the sample standard deviation of the 1 1 0 0 0
data set. 1 5 0 3 6
3 0 3 1 1
1 1 6 0 1
3 6 6 1 2
2 3 0 1 1
4 1 1 2 2
0 3 0 2 4

Solution: Finding the Standard Deviation
for Grouped Data
First construct a frequency distribution.
x f xf
Find the mean of the frequency 0 10 0(10) = 0
distribution. 1 19 1(19) = 19
xf 91
2 7 2(7) = 14
x 1.8 3 7 3(7) =21
n 50 4 2 4(2) = 8
5 1 5(1) = 5
The sample mean is about 1.8 6 4 6(4) = 24
children. f = 50 (xf )= 91

for Grouped Data
Determine the sum of squares.
x f xx ( x x )2 ( x x )2 f
0 10 0 1.8 = 1.8 (1.8)2 = 3.24 3.24(10) = 32.40
1 19 1 1.8 = 0.8 (0.8)2 = 0.64 0.64(19) = 12.16
2 7 2 1.8 = 0.2 (0.2)2 = 0.04 0.04(7) = 0.28
3 7 3 1.8 = 1.2 (1.2)2 = 1.44 1.44(7) = 10.08
4 2 4 1.8 = 2.2 (2.2)2 = 4.84 4.84(2) = 9.68
5 1 5 1.8 = 3.2 (3.2)2 = 10.24 10.24(1) = 10.24
6 4 6 1.8 = 4.2 (4.2)2 = 17.64 17.64(4) = 70.56
( x x )2 f 145.40

for Grouped Data
Find the sample standard deviation.
x 2 x ( x x )2 ( x x )2 f
( x x ) f 145.40
s 1.7
n 1 50 1
The standard deviation is about 1.7 children.

Quartiles
Fractiles are numbers that partition (divide) an
ordered data set into equal parts.
Quartiles approximately divide an ordered data set
into four equal parts.
First quartile, Q1: About one quarter of the data
fall on or below Q1.
Second quartile, Q2: About one half of the data
fall on or below Q2 (median).
Third quartile, Q3: About three quarters of the
data fall on or below Q3.

Example: Finding Quartiles
The test scores of 15 employees enrolled in a CPR

training course are listed. Find the first, second, and
third quartiles of the test scores.
13 9 18 15 14 21 7 10 11 20 5 18 37 16 17
Solution:
Q2 divides the data set into two halves.
Lower half Upper half
5 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 20 21 37
Q2
Solution: Finding Quartiles
The first and third quartiles are the medians of the
lower and upper halves of the data set.
Lower half Upper half
5 7 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 20 21 37
Q1 Q2 Q3
About one fourth of the employees scored 10 or less,

about one half scored 15 or less; and about three
fourths scored 18 or less.

Interquartile Range
Interquartile Range (IQR)

The difference between the third and first quartiles.
IQR = Q3 Q1

Example: Finding the Interquartile Range
Find the interquartile range of the test scores.

Recall Q1 = 10, Q2 = 15, and Q3 = 18
Solution:
IQR = Q3 Q1 = 18 10 = 8
The test scores in the middle portion of the data set

vary by at most 8 points.

Percentiles and Other Fractiles
Fractiles Summary Symbols

Quartiles Divides data into 4 equal Q1, Q2, Q3
parts
Deciles Divides data into 10 equal D1, D2, D3,, D9
parts
Percentiles Divides data into 100 equal P1, P2, P3,, P99
parts

Example: Interpreting Percentiles
The ogive represents the

cumulative frequency
distribution for SAT test
scores of college-bound
students in a recent year. What
test score represents the 72nd
percentile? How should you
interpret this? (Source: College
Board Online)

Solution: Interpreting Percentiles
The 72nd percentile

corresponds to a test score
of 1700.
This means that 72% of the
students had an SAT score
of 1700 or less.

The Standard Score
Standard Score (z-score)

Represents the number of standard deviations a given
value x falls from the mean .
value - mean x
z
standard deviation

Example: Comparing z-Scores from
Different Data Sets
In 2007, Forest Whitaker won the Best Actor Oscar at
age 45 for his role in the movie The Last King of
Scotland. Helen Mirren won the Best Actress Oscar at
age 61 for her role in The Queen. The mean age of all
best actor winners is 43.7, with a standard deviation of
8.8. The mean age of all best actress winners is 36, with
a standard deviation of 11.5. Find the z-score that
corresponds to the age for each actor or actress. Then
compare your results.

Solution: Comparing z-Scores from
Different Data Sets
Forest Whitaker
x 45 43.7 0.15 standard
z 0.15 deviations above
8.8 the mean
Helen Mirren
x 61 36 2.17 standard
z 2.17 deviations above
11.5 the mean

Solution: Comparing z-Scores from
Different Data Sets
z = 0.15 z = 2.17
The z-score corresponding to the age of Helen Mirren
is more than two standard deviations from the mean,
so it is considered unusual. Compared to other Best
Actress winners, she is relatively older, whereas the
age of Forest Whitaker is only slightly higher than the
average age of other Best Actor winners.

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Measures of Central Tendency

Measure of central tendency

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 1

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 2

The prices (in dollars) for a sample of roundtrip flights

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 3

872 432 397 427 388 782 397

The sum of the flight prices is

To find the mean price, divide the sum of the prices

The mean price of the flights is about $527.90.

The prices (in dollars) for a sample of roundtrip flights

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 6

872 432 397 427 388 782 397

First order the data.

There are seven entries (an odd number), the median

The median price of the flights is $427.

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 7

The flight priced at $432 is no longer available. What is

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 8

872 397 427 388 782 397

There are six entries (an even number), the median is

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 9

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 10

The prices (in dollars) for a sample of roundtrip flights

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 11

872 432 397 427 388 782 397

Ordering the data helps to find the mode.

The entry of 397 occurs twice, whereas the other

The mode of the flight prices is $397.

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 12

At a political debate a sample of audience members was

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 13

Political Party Frequency, f

The mode is Republican (the response occurring with

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 14

All three measures describe a typical entry of a data

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 15

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 16

Mode: 20 years (the entry occurring with the

Mean 23.8 years Median = 21.5 years Mode = 20 years

The mean takes every entry into account, but is

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 18

In this case, it appears that the median best describes

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 20

You are taking a class in which your grade is

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 21

Mean of a Frequency Distribution

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 23

2. Find the sum of the

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 27

Uniform Distribution (rectangular)

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 28

Skewed Left Distribution (negatively skewed)

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 29

Skewed Right Distribution (positively skewed)

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 30

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 31

A corporation hired 10 graduates. The starting salaries

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 32

Ordering the data helps to find the least and greatest

Range = (Max. salary) (Min. salary)

The range of starting salaries is 10 or $10,000.

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 33

Larson/Farber 4th ed. 34