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2200
3Al2O3-2SiO2
T(C)
mullite
2000 Liquid
alumina + L
(L)
1800
mullite
crystobalite alumina
+L
+L +
1600 mullite
mullite
Adapted from Fig. 12.27,
+ crystobalite Callister 7e. (Fig. 12.27
is adapted from F.J. Klug
1400 and R.H. Doremus,
0 20 40 60 80 100 "Alumina Silica Phase
Diagram in the Mullite
Composition (wt% alumina) Region", J. American
Ceramic Society 70(10),
p. 758, 1987.)
SILICA REFRACTORIES (ACID REFRACTORIES)
Prime ingredient is silica.
High-temperature load-bearing capacity which is
applied in the arched roofs of steel/glass making
furnaces.
Resistant to slags that are rich in silica (called acid
slags).
Used as containment vessels.
But readily attacked by slags composed of a high
proportion of CaO and/or MgO (basic slags).
Note: Slag is produced during the smelting process in several ways.
Firstly, slag represents undesired impurities in the metals being
smelted, which float to the top during the smelting process. Secondly,
metals start to oxidize as they are smelted, and slag forms a protective
crust of oxides on the top of the metal being smelted, protecting the
liquid metal underneath.
BASIC REFRACTORIES
Refractories which are rich in periclase (magnesia)
(MgO).
Presence of silica is deleterious to their high-
temperature performance.
Resistant to attack by slags containing high
concentrations of MgO and CaO.
Extensively used in steel-making open hearth
furnaces.
A type of furnace where excess carbon and other
impurities are burnt out of the iron to produce
steel.
SPECIAL REFRACTORIES
Specialized refractory applications.
High-purity oxide materials with low porosity.
Alumina, silica, magnesia, beryllia (BeO), zirconia
(ZrO2) and mullite (3Al2O3-2SiO2).
Carbide compounds, graphite, carbon.
Silicon carbide used for electrical resistance heating
elements.
Crucible material - heat-resistant container in
which materials can be heated to very high
temperatures.
Internal furnace components.
Carbon and graphite have limited application
because they are susceptible to oxidation at
temperatures in excess of about 800C.
Expensive costs.
4.8.1.5 ABRASIVES
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind or
cut away other (softer) material.
The prime requisite is hardness or wear
resistance.
A high degree of toughness is essential to
ensure that the abrasive materials do not
easily fracture.
Since abrasive frictional forces would
produce high temperatures, refractory
property is desirable.
Diamonds (natural and synthetic) are utilized
as abrasives but are too expensive.
Common ceramic abrasives are silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminium
oxide (corondum) and silica sand.
Used in several forms:
Grinding wheels
Abrasive particles are bonded to a wheel by
means of a glassy ceramic or an organic resin.
Surface structure should contain some
porosity, a continual flow of air currents or
liquid coolants within the pores that surround
the refractory grains prevent excessive
heating.
Coated abrasives
Abrasive powder is coated on some type of
paper or cloth material, i.e. sandpaper.
Used on wood, metals, ceramics and plastics.
Loose abrasive grains
Grinding, lapping and polishing wheels often
use loose grains that are delivered in some
type of oil- or water-based vehicle.
Diamonds, corondum, silicon carbide and
rouge (iron oxide) are used in loose form over
a variety of grain size ranges.
Application: Cutting Tools
Tools:
-- for grinding glass, tungsten,
carbide, ceramics
-- for cutting Si wafers
-- for oil drilling
Die surface:
-- 4 mm polycrystalline diamond
particles that are sintered onto a
cemented tungsten carbide Courtesy Martin Deakins, GE
substrate. Superabrasives, Worthington,
OH. Used with permission.
-- polycrystalline diamond helps control
fracture and gives uniform hardness
in all directions.
4.8.1.6 CEMENTS
INORGANIC CEMENTS
CEMENTS
PLASTER OF PARIS
LIME
Produced in large quantities.
Characteristic feature of these materials is that when
mixed with water, they form a paste that
subsequently sets and hardens.
Solid and rigid structures of any shape may be
formed.
Act as bonding phase that chemically binds
particulate aggregates into a single cohesive
structure.
Cementitious bond develops at room temperature.
PORTLAND CEMENT is consumed in the largest
tonnages.
Grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-
bearing minerals in proper proportions, and then
heating to around 1400C.
Ground into very fine powder and gypsum is
added (to retard the setting process).
Termed a Hydraulic cement because its hardness
develops by chemical reactions with water. Used
primarily in mortar (fire-proofing material) and
concrete (construction material).
Lime is a Nonhydraulic cement as compounds other
than water (e.g. CO2) are involved in the hardening
reaction.
4.8.1.7 ADVANCED CERAMICS
Glass Glasses:
(amorphous solid)
-- do not crystallize
Crystalline -- no definitive temperature at which
(i.e., ordered) solid
liquid transforms to a solid
Tg Tm T -- change in slope in spec. vol. curve at
glass transition temperature, Tg
-- transparent
Adapted from Fig. 13.6, Callister, 7e.
- no crystals to scatter light
Glass Viscosity vs. T and Impurities
soda-lime glass: 70% SiO2
Viscosity decreases with T balance Na2O (soda) & CaO (lime)
Impurities lower Tdeform borosilicate (Pyrex):
13% B2O3, 3.5% Na2O, 2.5% Al2O3
Vycor: 96% SiO2, 4% B2O3
fused silica: > 99.5 wt% SiO2
Viscosity [Pa s]
Finishing
mold
iii. Drawing.
Long glass pieces such as sheets, rods, tubing or
fibers.
wind up
4.8.2.1.3 HEAT TREATING GLASSES
ANNEALING
When a ceramic material is cooled from an elevated
temperature, internal stresses (thermal stresses) may be
introduced as a a result of the difference in cooling rate and
thermal contraction between the surface and interior
regions.
These defects weaken the material and in some cases lead
to fracture (thermal shock).
Normally to avoid these thermal stresses, cooling is done at
a sufficiently slow rate.
Elimination or reduction can be achieved by an annealing
heat treatment.
Glassware is heated to the annealing point and slowly
cooled to room temperature.
Overall, this heat treatment method will improve the glass
durability.
GLASS TEMPERING
Glass strength may be enhanced by inducing
compressive residual surface stresses by a heat
treatment procedure called thermal tempering.
Tempered glass is used for applications in which
strength is important; such as large doors and
eyeglass lenses.
before cooling surface cooling further cooled
cooler compression
hot hot tension
cooler compression
--Slip casting:
pour slip absorb water pour slip drain green
into mold into mold into mold mold ceramic
green
ceramic
Chapter 13 - 40
4.8.3.4 DRYING AND FIRING
DRYING
As a clay-based ceramic body dries,
shrinkage occurs.
Critical to control the rate of water removal in
order for interior and exterior surfaces to dry
properly.
Shrinkage is influenced by
Body thickness.
Water content of the formed body.
Clay particle size.
Microwave energy is being used to dry
ceramic wares.
Drying below 50C.
FIRING
After drying, the body is fired up at a
temperature between 900 and
1400C.
Density is further increased and
mechanical strength enhanced.
Vitrification occurs when clay is
heated to elevated temperatures.
The gradual formation of a liquid
glass that flows into and fills some
of the pore volume.
FIRING AND VITRIFICATION
During the firing operation, the density of the finished piece
is further increased and the mechanical strength is
enhanced.
Vitrification is the process where the gradual formation of a
liquid glass flows into and fills some of the pore volume.
The degree of vitrification depends on the firing
temperature and time, as well as the composition of the
body.
Fluxing agents such as feldspar can be added to lower the
temperature at which the liquid phase form.
The fused phase flows around the remaining unmelted
particles and fills in the pores.
Upon cooling, this fused phase forms a glassy matrix that
results in a dense strong body.
Drying and Firing
Drying: layer size and spacing decrease. Adapted from Fig.
13.13, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 13.13 is from
W.D. Kingery,
Introduction to
Ceramics, John
Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1960.)
70mm
4.8.4 POWDER PRESSING
Powder is compacted
in a metal die by
pressure that is applied
in a single direction.
Confined to relatively
simple shapes.
Inexpensive process
since high production
rates.
(ii)ISOTACTIC