Magnetic Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do we measure magnetic properties?

What are the atomic reasons for magnetism?

How are magnetic materials classified?

Materials design for magnetic storage.

What is the importance of superconducting magnets?

1
 Magnetic Moments and Magnetic Fields

Electrically charged particles generate magnetic forces.

A magnetic field exerts a torque which orients dipoles

with the field.

Externally applied magnetic field is called the magnetic

field strength, H (amperes/meter)

Magnetic field lines describe the structure of magnetic

fields in three dimensions.

2
 Applied Magnetic Field
Created by current through a coil:

Applied
N = total number of turns
magnetic field H
L = length of each turn

current I
Relation for the applied magnetic field, H:
N I
H
L current

applied magnetic field

units = (ampere-turns/m)

3
Magnetic fields are generated by
movement of electric charges

A loop of electric
current generates a
magnetic dipole field

4
 A magnetic dipole
Field lines run from the North pole to
the South pole

Field lines indicate the direction of force

that would be experienced by a North
magnetic monopole

A simple bar magnet behaves like a

magnetic dipole

5
 Field picture
Sometimes the dipoles are very
small compared with their
spatial field of influence
An electron, for example

A magnetic dipole is often

represented schematically as an
arrow.

The head of the arrow is the North

pole. 6
 Response to a Magnetic Field
Magnetic induction results in the material

B = Magnetic Induction (tesla)

inside the material

current I

Magnetic susceptibility, c (dimensionless)

B c >0 c measures the

vacuum c = 0 material response
c<0 relative to a vacuum.
H
7
 Magnetic Susceptibility
Measures the response of electrons to a magnetic field.
Electrons produce magnetic moments:

magnetic moments
Adapted from Fig. 20.4,
Callister 7e.
electron electron

nucleus spin

Moments come from 2 sources:

i. Orbital motion around a nucleus
ii. Spinning around an axis
8
 Types of magnetism
The net magnetic moment for an atom is the sum of the
magnetic moments of constituent electrons

Atoms with completely filled electron shells are incapable

permanent magnetization

All materials exhibit some form of magnetization.

Three types of response:

Ferromagnetism,
Diamagnetism and
Paramagnetism.
9
 3 types of magnetism
B (1 c)oH permeability of a vacuum:
(1.26 x 10-6 Henries/m)
Magnetic induction
B (tesla)
(3) ferromagnetic e.g. Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
ferrimagnetic e.g. ferrite(), Co, Ni, Gd
( c as large as 106 !)

(2) paramagnetic ( c ~ 10 -4)

e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum (c = 0)
(1) diamagnetic ( c ~ -10 -5)
e.g., Al 2 O3 , Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

Strength of applied magnetic field (H)

(ampere-turns/m) Plot adapted from Fig. 20.6, Callister 7e. Values and
materials from Table 20.2 and discussion in Section
20.4, Callister 7e.
10
 Magnetic moments for 3 types
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
none
(1) diamagnetic Adapted from Fig.
20.5(a), Callister 7e.

random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic Adapted from Fig.
20.5(b), Callister 7e.
aligned

aligned
(3) ferromagnetic Adapted from Fig. 20.7,
Callister 7e.
ferrimagnetic

11
 Types of Magnetism

The atoms in diamagnetic material have no permanent magnetic

dipole moments.

Paramagnetism occurs primarily in substances in which some or

all of the individual atoms, ions, or molecules possess a
permanent magnetic dipole moment.

A ferromagnetic substance contains permanent atomic magnetic

dipoles that are spontaneously oriented parallel to one another
even in the absence of an external field.

12
 Ferro- & Ferri-Magnetic Materials
As the applied field (H) increases...
--the magnetic moment aligns with H.
B sat
Adapted from Fig. 20.13,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 20.13
H adapted from O.H.
Wyatt and D. Dew-
H
induction (B)

Hughes, Metals,
Ceramics, and
H Domains with Polymers, Cambridge
Magnetic

University Press, 1974.)

aligned magnetic
H moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones!
H
0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
13
Magnetization, M

Material with a net

magnetic moment is
magnetized

Magnetization is the
magnetic moment per
unit volume within
the material

14
Magnetization depends on..
Number density of
magnetic dipole
moments within
material
Magnitude of the
magnetic dipole
moments within
the material
The arrangement
of the magnetic
dipoles within the
material
15
Generating a uniform magnetic field in the laboratory

An electric current run through a conducting coil

(solenoid) generates a uniform flux density within
the coil
Flux density in vacuum
(or air) within coil..
Increases in
proportion to the
electric current

Increases in
proportion to the
number of turns
per unit length in
the coil 16
Inserting a specimen into the coil
Generally, the orbital and spin
magnetic moments within atoms
respond to an applied magnetic
field
Flux lines are perturbed by
specimen
Specimen in magnetic field
If specimen has no
magnetic
response, flux
lines are not
perturbed 17
Magnetic materials
magnetic materials tend
to concentrate flux lines

Examples: materials
containing high
concentrations of magnetic
atoms such as iron, cobalt

Diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials tend

to repel flux lines weakly

Examples: water, protein,

fat 18
 Flux density B within material
determined by both
Geometry and
current in solenoid

Magnetic
properties of the
material

Geometry of
material

B 0 H M
19
 The H Field
H is called the magnetic field strength
0 is a constant called the permeability of free
space

In the absence of material in the solenoid

There is no
magnetization M
So..

B 0H
20
Measuring magnetic moment of specimen
Pass specimen thru small
sensing coil

Measure voltage generated

across coil

Voltage proportional to
moment on specimen

Use large coil to apply

magnetic field to
specimen

Use a cryostat or furnace

to vary temperature of
specimen
21
Response of material to applied magnetic field strength H

Generally, M changes
in magnitude as H is
varied.

Magnitude of response
is called the magnetic
susceptibility of the
material

Diamagnetic materials
have a very weak
negative response

i.e. they have a small

negative magnetic
susceptibility
22
 Magnetic susceptibility, c

Magnetic susceptibility is sometimes written

as

c MH
And sometimes as the slope of M vs H

c dM dH

23
 How does M respond to H?
There is a variety of ways that M responds
to H
Response depends on type of material
Response depends on temperature
Response can sometimes depend on the
previous history of magnetic field
strengths and directions applied to the
material

24
Non-linear responses
Generally, the
response of M to H
is non-linear

Only at small
values of H or high
temperatures is
response
sometimes linear

M tends to saturate
at high fields and
low temperatures
25
Low field magnetic susceptibility

For some
materials, low field
magnetic
susceptibility is
inversely
proportional to
temperature

Curies Law
26
Magnetic hysteresis

M depends on previous
state of magnetization

Remnant magnetization
Mr remains when applied
field is removed

Need to apply a field

(coercive field) in
opposite direction to
reduce M to zero.

27
 Magnetic Hysteresis Loops
B field lags behind H field
Remenance: residual B field at H = 0
Domains are resistant to movement
Coercivity, Hc: H field magnitude required
to set B = 0
Soft Magnets
Small coercivity (e.g., commercial iron 99.95 Fe)
Good for varying fields (e.g. electric motors)
Hard Magnets
High coercivity: add particles/voids to make
domain walls hard to move (e.g. tungsten steel)

Area within hysteresis loop is

energy lost (usually heat)

28
Effect of temperature on remnant magnetization
Heating a magnetized material
generally decreases its
magnetization.
Remnant magnetization is
reduced to zero above Curie
temperature Tc

Heating a sample above its

Curie temperature is a way
of demagnetizing it

Thermal demagnetization

29
The Microscopic Picture of Magnetic
Materials
Paramagnetic gas

Imagine a classical
gasmolecules each
with a magnetic
dipole moment

In zero field the would

have zero
magnetization

30
Paramagnetic gas

Applying a
magnetic field
would tend to
orient the dipole
moments

31
Paramagnetic gas
Very high fields would
saturate magnetization

Heating the gas would

tend to disorder the
moments and hence
decrease
magnetization

32
Paramagnetic gas
Theoretical model
Non-interacting moments
Boltzmann statistics
Dipole interaction with B
Yields good model for
many materials
Examples: ferrous sulfate
crystals, ionic solutions
of magnetic atoms

33
Ferromagnetism
Materials that retain a
magnetization in zero
field

Quantum mechanical
exchange interactions
favour parallel
alignment of moments

Examples: iron, cobalt

34
Ferromagnetism

Thermal energy can be

used to overcome
exchange interactions

Curie temp is a measure

of exchange interaction
strength

Note: exchange
interactions much
stronger than dipole-
dipole interactions
35
 The Curie Temperature

All ferromagnets have a maximum temperature

where the ferromagnetic property disappears as a
result of thermal agitation. This temperature is called
the Curie temperature.
For a given ferromagnetic material the long range
order abruptly disappears at a certain temperature
which is called the Curie temperature for the
material.
The Curie temperature of iron is about 1043 K. The
Curie temperature gives an idea of the amount of
energy takes to break up the long-range ordering in
the material.

36
Magnetic domains

Ferromagnetic
materials tend to form
magnetic domains

Each domain is
magnetized in a
different direction

Domain structure
minimizes energy due
to stray fields

37
Magnetic domains
Applying a field
changes domain
structure
Domains with
magnetization in
direction of field
grow
Other domains
shrink

38
Magnetic domains

Applying very strong fields

can saturate magnetization
by creating single domain

Removing the field

does not necessarily
return domain
structure to original
state

Hence results in
magnetic hysteresis
39
Magnetic domain walls

Wall thickness, t, is
typically about 100
nm

Single domain particles

Particles smaller
than t have no
domains
<t 40
Antiferromagnetism
In some materials,
exchange interactions
favour antiparallel
alignment of atomic
magnetic moments
Materials are
magnetically ordered
but have zero remnant
magnetization and
very low c
Many metal oxides are
antiferromagnetic

41
Antiferromagnetism

Thermal energy
can be used to
overcome
exchange
interactions

Magnetic order is
broken down at the
Nel temperature
(c.f. Curie temp)
42
Ferrimagnetism
Antiferromagnetic
exchange
interactions
Different sized
moments on each
sublattice
Results in net
magnetization
Example: magnetite,
maghemite
43
Thermal activation

At low temperature
magnetic moment
of particle trapped
in one of the wells

Particle magnetic
moment is
blocked

44
Thermal activation

At higher temps, thermal

energy can buffet
magnetic moment
between the wells

Results in rapid
fluctuation of moment

Particle moment
becomes unblocked

45
Magnetic blocking temperature
The magnetic blocking temp, Tb, is the
temp below which moment is blocked

Blocking temperature depends on particle

size and timescale of observation

Larger particles have higher blocking

temperatures

The longer the observation time, the more

likely it is that the moment will be
observed to flip

46
 Fluctuation timescales,

Observation
window Slope Vol

47
 Effect of applied field on single domain
particles

Applying field along

easy axis favours
moment aligned with
Increasing field

field

Above Tb this results

in moment spending
more time in lower
well

Particle exhibits time

averaged
magnetization in
direction of field

48
 Superparamagnetism
Unblocked
particles that
respond to a field
are known as
superparamagnetic

Room temp Superparamagnets are

often ideal for applications
where
a high magnetic
susceptibility is required
zero magnetic remanence
is required 49
 Superparamagnetism
Response of
superparamagnets to
applied field described
Room temp by Langevin model
Qualitatively similar to
paramagnets
At room temperature
superparamagnetic
materials have a much
greater magnetic
susceptibility per atom
than paramagnetic
materials 50
 Permanent Magnets
Process: B
2. apply H, cause
3. remove H, alignment stays! alignment
=> permanent magnet! Adapted from Fig. 20.14,
Callister 7e.

Applied Magnetic
Field (H)
4 . Coercivity, HC 1. initial (unmagnetized state)
Negative H needed to demagnitize!
B
Hard vs Soft Magnets
Adapted from Fig. 20.19,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 20.19 from
K.M. Ralls, T.H. Courtney, and
large coercivity J. Wulff, Introduction to
Materials Science and
--good for perm magnets Engineering, John Wiley and
--add particles/voids to Sons, Inc., 1976.)
Soft

make domain walls Applied Magnetic

hard to move (e.g., Field (H)
tungsten steel:
Hc = 5900 amp-turn/m) small coercivity--good for elec. motors
(e.g., commercial iron 99.95 Fe)
51
 Magnetic Storage
Information is stored by magnetizing material.
Head can... recording medium
-- apply magnetic field H &
align domains (i.e.,
magnetize the medium).
-- detect a change in the
magnetization of the recording head
Image of hard drive courtesy Adapted from Fig. 20.23, Callister 7e.
medium. Martin Chen. (Fig. 20.23 from J.U. Lemke, MRS
Reprinted with permission Bulletin, Vol. XV, No. 3, p. 31, 1990.)
Two media types: from International Business
Machines Corporation.

-- Particulate: needle-shaped --Thin film: CoPtCr or CoCrTa

g-Fe2O3. +/- mag. moment alloy. Domains are ~ 10 - 30 nm!
along axis. (tape, floppy) (hard drive) Adapted from Fig. 20.25(a),
Adapted from Fig.
Callister 7e. (Fig. 20.25(a)
20.24, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 20.24 from M.R. Kim, S.
Guruswamy, and K.E.
courtesy P. Rayner ~2.5 m ~120 nm Johnson, J. Appl. Phys.,
and N.L. Head, IBM
Vol. 74 (7), p. 4646, 1993. )
Corporation.)

52
 Superconductivity

Hg

Copper
(normal)

4.2 K Adapted from Fig. 20.26,

Callister 7e.

Tc = temperature below which material is superconductive

= critical temperature
53
 Limits of Superconductivity
26 metals + 100s of alloys & compounds
Unfortunately, not this simple:
Jc = critical current density if J > Jc not superconducting
Hc = critical magnetic field if H > Hc not superconducting

Hc= Ho (1- (T/Tc)2)

Adapted from Fig. 20.27,

Callister 7e.

54
 Advances in Superconductivity
This research area was stagnant for many years.
Everyone assumed Tc,max was about 23 K
Many theories said you couldnt go higher
1987- new results published for Tc > 30 K
ceramics of form Ba1-x Kx BiO3-y
Started enormous race.
Y Ba2Cu3O7-x Tc = 90 K
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox Tc = 122 K
tricky to make since oxidation state is quite important
Values now stabilized at ca. 120 K

55
 Meissner Effect
Superconductors expel magnetic fields

normal superconductor
Adapted from Fig. 20.28,
Callister 7e.

This is why a superconductor will float above a

magnet
56
 Current Flow in Superconductors

Type I current only in outer skin

- so amount of current limited

Type II current flows within wire

Type I

M Type II

HC1 HC HC2 H
complete
diamagnetism mixed normal
state
57
 Superconducting Materials
CuO2 planes

X Cu
O linear
X Cu chains
X X
X
Ba Y Ba
X
X
(001) planes
X

YBa2Cu3O7

Vacancies (X) provide electron coupling between CuO2 planes.

58
 Magnetics - some theory
Lets start with a permanent magnet.
It exerts a force on another magnet
through space.
We can say that a field exists around the
magnet through which it interacts.
This force field is in fact the magnetic
field.
The same can be observed by driving a
current through a coil
Since the two fields are identical, their
sources are identical - currents generate
magnetic fields
59
Equivalence between permanent
magnet and coil

60
 Magnetics - some theory
A magnet attracts or repels another
magnet this gives us the first observable
interaction in the magnetic field it also
attracts a piece of iron.
It will not attract a piece of copper.
Conclusion: there are different types of
material in terms of their magnetic
properties.
Magnetic properties are governed by the
permeability of the material,
[henry/meter]

61
 Magnetics - some theory

The strength of the magnetic field is usually

given by the magnetic flux density B [tesla]
The magnetic flux density is also called
magnetic induction
The magnetic field intensity H
[ampere/meter].
The relation between the two is simple:
B = 0rH

62
 Magnetics - some theory

0=4x10 [H/m] is the permeability of

vacuum
r is the relative permeability of the medium
in which the relation holds,
r is given as the ratio between the
permeability of the medium and that of
vacuum
A dimensionless quantity associated with
each material in nature.
Permeabilities of some useful materials are
given next. 63
 Magnetics - some theory

Magnetic materials:
Diamagnetic, r < 1
Paramagnetic r > 1
Ferromagnetic r >> 1 (iron-like)
The latter are often the most useful materials
when working with magnetic fields.
There are other types of magnetic materials
(ferrites, magnetic powders, magnetic fluids,
magnetic glasses, etc.)

64
 Permeabilities of diamagentic and
paramagnetic materials
Material Relative Permeability Material Relative Permeability
Silver 0.999974 Air 1.00000036
Water 0.9999991 Aluminum 1.000021
Copper 0.999991 Palladium 1.0008
Mercury 0.999968 Platinum 1.00029
Lead 0.999983 Tungsten 1.000068
Gold 0.999998 Magnesium 1.00000693
Graphite (Carbon) 0.999956 Manganese 1.000125
Hydrogen 0.999999998 Oxygen 1.0000019

65
 Permeabilities of ferromagnetic
materials
Material r Material r
Cobalt 250 Permalloy (78.5% Ni) 100,000
Nickel 600 Fe3O4 (Magnetite) 100
Iron 6,000 Ferrites 5,000
Supermalloy (5% Mo, 79% Ni) 107 Mumetal (75% Ni, 5% Cu, 2% Cr) 100,000
Steel (0.9%C) 100 Permendur 5,000
Silicon Iron (4% Si) 7,000

66
 Magnetics - some definitions

Soft magnetic materials are those for which

magnetization is reversible
Hard magnetic materials are materials which
retain magnetization and are therefore used
for production of permanent magnets
Hysteresis - a property of ferromagnetic
materials best explained through the
magnetization curve
Nonlinear magnetization: permeability is field
dependent.

67
 Soft magnetic materials - used as
magnetic cores

Material Relative permeability (Max.) r

Iron(0.2% impure) 9,000
Pure iron (0.05% impure) 2105
Silicon iron (3%Si) 55,000
Permalloy 106
Superm-alloy (5% Mo, 79% Ni) 107
Permendur 5,000
Nickel* 600

68
 Hard magnetic materials - used in
permanent magnets

Material r
Alnico (Aluminum-Nickel-Cobalt) 3-5
Ferrite (Barium-Iron) 1.1
Sm-Co (Sammarium-Cobalt) 1.05
Ne-Fe-B (Neodymium-Iron-Boron) 1.05

69
Question: Cite the major similarities and differences between ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials.

Answer:
The similarities between ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are as follows:
(1) There is a coupling interaction between magnetic moments of adjacent atoms/cations for
both material types.
(2) Both ferromagnets and ferrimagnets form domains.
(3) Hysteresis B-H behavior is displayed for both, and, thus, permanent magnetizations are
possible.
The differences between ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are as follows:
(1) Magnetic moment coupling is parallel for ferromagnetic materials, and antiparallel for
ferrimagnetic.
(2) Ferromagnetics, being metallic materials, are relatively good electrical conductors;
inasmuch as ferrimagnetic materials are ceramics, they are electrically insulative.
(3) Saturation magnetizations are higher for ferromagnetic materials.

Question: Explain why repeatedly dropping a permanent magnet on the floor will cause it to
become demagnetized.

Answer: Repeatedly dropping a permanent magnet on the floor will cause it to become
demagnetized because the jarring causes large numbers of magnetic dipoles to become
misaligned by dipole rotation. 70
 Summary
A magnetic field can be produced by:
-- putting a current through a coil.
Magnetic induction:
-- occurs when a material is subjected to a magnetic field.
-- is a change in magnetic moment from electrons.
Types of material response to a field are:
-- ferri- or ferro-magnetic (large magnetic induction)
-- paramagnetic (poor magnetic induction)
-- diamagnetic (opposing magnetic moment)
Hard magnets: large coercivity.
Soft magnets: small coercivity.
Magnetic storage media:
-- particulate g-Fe2O3 in polymeric film (tape or floppy)
-- thin film CoPtCr or CoCrTa on glass disk (hard drive)

71