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D. R. Kirk
LECTURE OUTLINE
Introduction
What is an air-breathing engine
Key questions
Propulsion Options
Rocket Propulsion Overview and Basic Operation
Air-Breathing Propulsion Overview and Basic Operation
Momentum Exchange Physics
Air-Breathing Engine Components
Nomenclature
Component Functionality
Engine Types
Turbojet (+ afterburner), Turbofan, Turboprop, Ramjet, Scramjet
Examples of Current Aircraft Engines
Take mass stored in a vehicle and Capture mass from environment and set
throw it backwards that mass in motion backwards
Use reaction force to propel Use reaction force to propel vehicle
vehicle
Only fuel is carried onboard
All fuel and oxidizer are carried
onboard the vehicle Oxidizer (air) is harvested
continuously during flight
AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION
Gas turbine engines power every modern aircraft and will for foreseeable future
Gas turbines used for land-based power application, rocket engine turbo-pumps,
marine applications, ground vehicles (tanks), etc.
Many technical challenges to be addressed (Fuel Economy, Emissions, Noise)
Fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, combustion, controls, materials, etc.
One of most complicated, parts, extreme environment device on earth
Enormous market: vast research and development $$
Development time of engine > development time of aircraft (5:3)
Market is so competitive that engines are sold for a loss
DESIGN DRIVER: FUEL ECONOMY
JT8D
Fuel Burn
JT9D PW4084
Future
Turbofan
PW4052
NOTE: No Numbers
707 757
727 767
737
777
747
787
TRENDS TO BIGGER ENGINES
1958: Boeing 707, United States' first commercial jet airliner 1995: Boeing 777, FAA Certified
2 Engines 3 Engines
4 Engines 6 Engines
SR-71: J-58 TURBO RAMJET
DRONES IN THE NEWS
X-51
LAND-BASED POWER GENERATION
LARGEST GAS TURBINE ENGINE: SGT5-8000H
Power 340 MW
Extrapolated mass flow based on
SGT100-SGT1000 series: 900 kg/s
Average of SGT100-SGT1000,
Assume pc: 15
Assumed tc (isentropic, g=1.35): 2
Assume 24 burners (consistent with
SGT5-series)
Combustor total CFM: 216,000
CFM per burner: 9,000
Trends:
If combustor inlet temperature is
lower, CFM is lower
If combustor inlet pressure is
http://www.powergeneration.siemens.com/en/products/gasturbinesseries/largescale/sgt5_8000h/index.cfm
higher, CFM is lower
GE 9H: HOW LARGE IS THE DEVICE?
FURTHER EXAMPLES
WHY AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION
Propulsion Goal: Create a Force to Propel a Vehicle (N.S.L)
1. Take mass stored in a vehicle and throw it backwards Use reaction force to
propel vehicle
Rocket Propulsion (MAE: 4262)
All fuel and oxidizer are carried onboard vehicle
2. Capture mass from environment and set that mass in motion backwards
Use reaction force to propel vehicle
Air-Breathing Propulsion (MAE: 4261)
Only fuel is carried onboard
Oxidizer (air) is harvested continuously during flight
Thermal
Gases accelerated and ejected at high velocity
Energy
through nozzle, imparting momentum to engine
QUESTION:
F m eVe Pe Pa Ae Could a rocket engine exert thrust while
discharging into a vacuum (with not atmosphere
F m eVe to push against)?
HOW AN AIRCRAFT ENGINE WORKS
Chemical Thermal Kinetic
Energy Energy Energy
F m eVe m oVo Pe Pa Ae
F m Ve Vo
Flow through engine is conventionally called THRUST
Composed of net change in momentum of inlet and exit air
Fluid that passes around engine is conventionally called DRAG
SUMMARY: ESTIMATES FOR THRUST
F m Ve Rocket
F m Ve Vo Air-Breathing Engine
Points to remember:
Mass flow for rocket is propellant carried onboard (fuel + oxidizer)
Mass for air-breathing engine is fuel carried onboard and air harvested
from environment as airplane flies
Turbine
Inlet Combustor
2. Compressor / Fan:
Compresses air
Generally two, or three, compressors in series
Raises stagnation temperature and pressure (enthalpy) of flow
Work is done on the air
3. Combustor:
Combustion or burning processes
Adds fuel to compressed air and burns it
Converts chemical to thermal energy
Process takes place at relatively constant pressure
MAJOR GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPONENTS
4. Turbine:
Generally two or three turbines in series
Turbine powers, or drives, the compressor
Air is expanded through turbine (P & T )
Work is done by the air on the blades
Use some of that work to drive compressor
Next:
Expand in a nozzle
Convert thermal to kinetic energy (turbojet)
Burning may occur in duct downstream of turbine (afterburner)
Expand through another turbine
Use this extracted work to drive a fan (turbofan)
5. Nozzle:
Flow is ejected back into the atmosphere, but with increased momentum
Raises velocity of exiting mass flow
2. COMPRESSORS: WHERE IN ENGINE? PW2000
Fan
Compressor
Engine Core
TURBOFAN ENGINES
Bypass Air
Core Air
Bypass Ratio, B, a:
Ratio of by pass air flow rate to core flow rate
Example: Bypass ratio of 6:1 means that air volume flowing through fan and
bypassing core engine is six times air volume flowing through core
TRENDS TO BIGGER ENGINES
1958: Boeing 707, United States' first commercial jet airliner 1995: Boeing 777, FAA Certified
11 ft 7 in (3.53 m)
11 ft 3 in (3.43 m)
Engine is largest and most powerful turbofan built (11 ft 3 in (3.43 m) in diameter)
In this case, 737 cabin is a mere 3% wider than 777 engine
2 SPOOL DEVICE: PW2000
Commercial
PW4000
Combustor
Military
F119-100
Afterburner
4. TURBINES: LOCATION
Ve V0
Important for both fighter and
T m commercial aircraft
2
propulsive
Extremely important for commercial
aircraft, much less so for fighter
Ve
1 Efficiency critical for commercial
Low DV, high mass flow
V0
ENGINE STATION NUMBERING CONVENTION
2.0-2.5: Fan
0: Far Upstream 3: Combustor
4: Turbine
1: Inlet 2.5+: Compressor
5: Nozzle
Freestream Combustor
0
1
2 5
3 4
TYPICAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION THROUGH ENGINE
BOEING 747-400 AT TOUCHDOWN
BOEING 747-400 AT ROLLOUT
a
x
Thrust Reverser
Vane
TWO OTHER LAYOUTS
UDF: GTF:
Unducted Fan Concept Geared Turbofan
http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRHeft/FRHeft07/FRH0710/FR0710a.htm
http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0067.shtml
HIGH EFFICIENCY TURBINE ENGINE (HETE) FTT50FTA30
1 ft
1 cm
EXAMPLES OF GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS
Example of Film-Cooled
1st Turbine Blade
Cooling
Holes
NASA's X-43A research vehicle screamed into the record books again Tuesday,
demonstrating an air-breathing engine can fly at nearly 10 times the speed of
sound. Preliminary data from the scramjet-powered research vehicle show its
revolutionary engine worked successfully at nearly Mach 9.8, or 7,000 mph, as it
flew at about 110,000 feet.
NASA's X-43A scramjet program successfully smashed its own world speed
record for aircraft by flying at nearly 10 times the speed of sound. The flight
proves its radical, air-breathing engine can function at speeds of nearly 12,000
kilometers per hour.
Aviation history was made today as NASA successfully flew its experimental X-
43A research vehicle, a forerunner of craft that could well offer alternate access to
space in the future.
AIRCRAFT ENGINE BASICS
All aircraft engines are HEAT ENGINES
Utilize thermal energy derived from combustion of fossil fuels to produce
mechanical energy in form of kinetic energy of an exhaust jet
Momentum excess of exhaust jet over incoming airflow produces thrust
Thrust = Force = Time Rate Change of Momentum
http://100.rolls-royce.com/facts/view.jsp?id=215
http://www.aviationexplorer.com/a6_engine_ingestion.htm
Supplemental Slides:
Aircraft Engine Manufacturers
AIRCRAFT ENGINE MANUFACTURERS
3 Major Aircraft Manufacturers in World Today (Commercial and Military)
Interesting Note:
Companies sell product at a $$ loss
Profit is made many years later on refurbishment, spare parts,
maintenance
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT ENGINES: JT8D
Engine Models
JT8D-7/7A
JT8D-9/9A
JT8D-15/15A
JT8D-17/17A
JT8D-17R/17AR
JT8D-217C
JT8D-219
Airplanes Powered
Boeing 727
Boeing 737-100/-200
McDonnell Douglas
DC-9
Boeing MD-80
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT ENGINES: JT8D
P&W introduced JT8D to commercial aviation in February 1964 (Boeing's 727-100)
8 models of JT8D standard engine family cover thrust range from 14,000 to 17,400
pounds and power 727, 737, and DC-9 aircraft
More than 11,800 JT8D standard engines produced, over one-half billion hours of
service operation. New Program emphasis is on compliance with noise regulations
For -200 models, a new low-emissions combustion system, or E-Kit, has been FAR 25
certified. Reduces NOx by 25 percent, unburned hydrocarbons by 99 percent and
smoke by 52 percent relative to current models
The -200 is also the exclusive power for the Super 27 re-engining program, in which
Pratt & Whitney, in cooperation with Goodrich Aerostructures, is offering 727
operators a solution to achieve Stage 3/Chapter 3 compliance with improved
performance. Involves replacing two outboard engines with new JT8D-217C/219
models and adding noise suppression equipment. The Super 27 can increase range up
to 1,200 nautical miles and permits carrying up to 30 more passengers or up to 10,000
pounds in additional cargo.
Engine Characteristics
Fan tip diameter: 39.9 - 49.2 in
Length, flange to flange: 120.0 - 154.1 in
Takeoff thrust: 14,000 - 21,700 lb
Bypass ratio: 0.96 - 1.74
Overall pressure ratio: 15.4 - 21.0
Fan pressure ratio: 1.92 - 2.21
COMMERCIAL ENGINES: P&W 4000 SERIES
COMMERCIAL ENGINES: P&W 4000 SERIES
P&W 94 inch P&W 100 inch P&W 112 inch
Engine Models Engine Models Engine Models
PW4052 PW4164 PW4074
PW4056 PW4168 PW4077
PW4060 PW4168A
PW4077D
PW4062 Airplanes Powered
PW4084
PW4062A Airbus A330-300
PW4152 Airbus A330-200 PW4084D
PW4156A PW4090
PW4156 PW4098
PW4158 Airplanes Powered
PW4460 Boeing 777-200/-300
PW4462
Airplanes Powered
Boeing 747-400
Boeing 767-200/-300
Boeing MD-11
Airbus A300-600
Airbus A310-300
P&W 4000 SERIES: 94 INCH FAN
Pratt & Whitney's PW4000 94-inch fan model is the first in a family of high-thrust
aircraft engines
Certified thrust ranging from 52,000 to 62,000 pounds, it powers the Airbus A310-300
and A300-600 aircraft and Boeing 747-400, 767-200/300 and MD-11 aircraft. For
twin-engine aircraft, the PW4000 is approved for 180-minute ETOPS (Extended-range
Twin-engine Operations).
Entered service in 1987. Advanced, service-proven technologies, such as single-crystal
superalloy materials and its Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) for
superior fuel economy and reliability. The engine's attractiveness is further enhanced by
excellent performance retention, long on-wing times and low maintenance costs.
Meets all current and anticipated emissions and noise regulations with margin. For a
further reduction in emissions, especially NOx, TALON (Technology for Advanced
Low NOx) combustor technology is now available as an option. Derived from the 112-
inch fan model, TALON has segmented, replaceable liner panels for maintainability
and air blast fuel nozzles for excellent fuel atomization and mixing
Engine Characteristics
Fan tip diameter: 94 in
Length, flange to flange: 132.7 in
Takeoff thrust: 52,000 - 62,000 lb
Flat rated temperature: 86 or 92 F
Bypass ratio: 4.8 to 5.1
Overall pressure ratio: 27.5 to 32.3
Fan pressure ratio: 1.65 - 1.80
P&W 4000 SERIES: 100 INCH FAN
PW4000 100-inch fan engine is first derivative model in PW4000 family.
Developed specifically for Airbus Industrie's A330 twinjet, certified from 64,500
to 68,600 pounds of thrust.
PW4168 features the industry's lightest weight and most advanced nacelle.
Incorporates a number of service-proven technologies in materials, aerodynamics
and controls to enhance performance, reliability and durability. The engine was the
first in aviation history to qualify for ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine
Operations) prior to entering service. It is now approved for 180-minute ETOPS.
Meets all present and anticipated noise and exhaust emissions regulations.
PW4000 100-inch engines have accumulated more than three million hours of
revenue service and are the leading engine on the A330
Engine Characteristics
Fan tip diameter: 100 in
Length, flange to flange: 163.1 in
Takeoff thrust: 64,500 - 68,600 lb
Bypass ratio: 5.1
Overall pressure ratio: 32.0
Fan pressure ratio: 1.75
P&W 4000 SERIES: 112 INCH FAN
PW4000 112-inch fan engine is second derivative model in PW4000 engine family.
The PW4084, certified at 86,760 pounds thrust, was the launch engine for Boeing's 777
super twinjet. It entered service in June 1995 with United Airlines, already qualified for
180-minute ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operations). First engine to operate
with approval for 207-minute ETOPS. The PW4090, certified at 91,790 pounds of
thrust, entered service on the Boeing 777-200ER airplane in March 1997. The most
recent model, the PW4098, was certified in July 1998. The PW4098, at 99,040 pounds
of thrust, is available for 777-200ER and 777-300 models.
For transportability, the engine can be shipped in a 747F as a complete engine. Also,
the fan case is easily separated from the engine's core for split shipment without
disturbing the bearing compartments.
Engine Characteristics
Fan tip diameter: 112 in
Length, flange to flange: 191.7 in
Takeoff thrust: 74,000 - 98,000 lb
Bypass ratio: 5.8 to 6.4
Overall pressure ratio: 34.2 - 42.8
Fan pressure ratio: 1.70 - 1.80
GE 90 FAMILY: MOST POWERFUL ENGINES IN WORLD
A380-800 Wing span 79.8m (261ft 10in), length 73m (239ft 6in). Height 24,1 m (79ft 1in)
P&W / G.E. GP7000 DETAILS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Joint effort between Pratt & Whitney and General Electric
GP7000 is derived from some of the most successful widebody engine programs in
aviation history (GE90 and PW4000 families)
Industry leading ETOPS reliability from service entry
Over 250 million hours of performance
Built on GE90 core and PW4000 low spool, but with many new technologies
Best of GE Aircraft Engines and Pratt & Whitney technologies
Two-spool simplicity for reliability and maintainability
Best payload capability, performance and performance retention.
Quietest and lowest emissions in its class.
Engine Characteristics
Fan tip diameter: 116 in
Length, flange to flange: 187 in
Takeoff thrust: 70,000 lb
Flat rated temperature: 86 F
Bypass ratio: 8.7
FUEL CONSUMPTION TREND
U.S. airlines, hammered by soaring oil prices, will spend $5
billion more on fuel this year or even a greater sum, draining
already thin cash reserves
Airlines are among the industries hardest hit by high oil prices,
which have jumped 38 percent in just 12 months.
Airline stocks fell at the open of trading Tuesday as a spike in
crude-oil futures weighed on the sector
JT8D
Fuel Burn
JT9D PW4084
Future
Turbofan
PW4052
NOTE: No Numbers
The SGT-300 Industrial Gas Turbine for Power SGT-800 Industrial Gas Turbine 45MW
Generation (ISO) 7.90MW(e)
The SGT-800 combines reliable, robust industrial
The SGT-300 is available with a Dry Low Emissions design with the high efficiency and low emission
(DLE) combustion system, providing extremely low levels of the latest turbine technology. It allows you to
NOx levels with gas and liquid fuels and a full dual implement rapid, low-cost solutions for combined
fuel capability. The SGT-300 design is uniquely heat and power production. Moreover, it's
simple, employing a single twin bearing rotor with environmentally sound, compact and easy to install.
heavy duty casings. This allows full site maintenance
to be carried out. Designed for continuous, heavy-duty operation, the
SGT-800 is the obvious choice where reliability,
The generator set package is very compact, providing environmental concerns and low life-cycle costs are
a small footprint and a high power-to-weight ratio. key factors. In combined cycle installations, this
The single-shaft configuration provides excellent load turbine affords very competitive life-cycle costs. It
acceptance and rejection characteristics, allowing also offers high efficiency in simple cycle operation.
robust and reliable operation in all applications. And its powerful heat production capability in
cogeneration installations makes it the ideal choice for
the process industry.