Thermodynamics: Study of Heat and Work Transfer (Quantitatively)

Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer
Study of
Heat and Work transfer Thermodynamics
(quantitatively)
Study of
How heat flows Heat Transfer
every activity involves
heat transfer
Page 1
Driving Potential & Resistance
Students Class Room Ambience

Interest &
Capability
Transfer Teachers
Knowledge Interest &
Knowledge
Teaching Learning Process in a Class Room

DRIVING POTENTIAL RESISTANCE FACTORS
Difference between 1. Time of lecture
Teachers interest + knowledge & 2. Nature of subject
students interest + capability 3. Ambience (conduciveness)
However, higher potential difference leads to increase in entropy

Page 2
Conduction
The transfer of energy in a solid or fluid via molecular contact

without bulk motion
Solids > Lattice vibrations
MODE
Fluids > Molecular collisions
T
dT
q
dx
T T0
x
PHYSICAL MATHEMATICAL
PagePHENOMENON
3 EQUATION
Conduction (contd.)
Fourier Law of Heat Conduction
dT T
q qx k
dx x
The heat flux, q is directly proportional to temperature gradient
The proportionality constant, k, is defined as the thermal
conductivity, a thermo physical property.
Page 4
Conduction (contd.)
Thermal Conductivity, k
Silver = 410 Wm-1K-1
METALS NON-METALS
k/ksilver k/ksilver
Silver 1 Air 0.19
Gold 0.7 Water 0.0014
Copper 0.93 Granite, Sandstone 0.011
Aluminum 0.86 Average rock 0.012
Brass (70% Cu:30% Ni) 0.33 Limestone 0.007
Platinum, Lead 0.25 Ice 0.015
Mild steel (0.1% Cu), Cast iron 0.12 Glass (crown) 0.0058
Bismuth 0.07 Concrete (1:2:4) 0.0042
Mercury 0.04 Brick 0.0038
Snow (fresh or average) 0.005
Soil (sandy, dry) 0.002
Soil (8% moist) 0.0033
Wood 0.0045
Page 5
Convection
Convection occurs in liquids and gases.

Energy is carried with fluid motion when convection occurs.
Q& hA(Tw Ta )
PHENOMENON EQUATION
Page 6
Convection (contd.)
Newtons Law of Cooling

Q& hA(Tw Ta )
The quantity h is called the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K).
It is dependent on the type of fluid flowing past the wall and the velocity
distribution.
Thus, h is not a thermo physical property.
Convection Process h(W/m2-K)

Free convection
Gases 225
Liquids
501000
Forced convection
Gases 25250
Liquids
5020,000
Page 7
Convection phase change 2,500200,000
Convection (contd.)
Convective Processes
Single phase fluids (gases and liquids)

Forced convection
Free convection, or natural convection
Mixed convection (forced plus free)
Convection with phase change
Boiling
Condensation
Page 8
Radiation
Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves
A,Ts
E& Ts
4
PHENOMENON EQUATION
Page 9
Radiation (contd.)
Stefan-Boltzman Law
E&b T s
4
The emissive power of a black body over all wave

lengths is proportional to fourth power of temperature
Page 10
One Dimensional Heat Conduction
k Heat flow out
Heat flow in [Aq]x+x

g
[Aq]x x
Net rate of heat Rate of energy Rate of increase

gain by conduction + generation = of internal energy
T ( x, t )
[Aq]x [Aq]x+ x + A x g = A x c p
t
1 [ Aq ]x x [ Aq ]x T ( x, t )
g c p
A x t
Page 11
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)
k Heat flow out
Heat flow in [Aq]x+x

g
[Aq]x x
1 [ Aq ]x x [ Aq] x T ( x, t )
g c p
A x t
As x 0, the first term on the LHS, by definition, becomes the derivative of
[Aq] with respect to x
1 T ( x, t )
Aq g c p
A x t
1 T T ( x, t )
Ak g c p
Page 12 A x x t
One Dimensional Heat Conduction (contd.)
Rectangular Coordinates
T T ( x, t )
k g c p n=0
x x t
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 T T (r , t ) n=1
rk g c p
r r r t
Spherical Coordinates
1 2 T T (r , t ) n=2
r k g c p
r r
2
r t
A Compact Equation
1 n T T (r , t )
r k g c p
r r
n
r t
Page 13
Boundary Conditions
Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)
Convection BC (Third kind)
Page 14
Boundary Conditions

T (x,t) | x=0 = T (0,t) = T1

T1 T2
T (x,t) | x=L = T (L,t) = T2
0 L x
Page 15
Boundary Conditions

Heat
Supply Plate
Conduction
flux
T
q0 k T
x
W/m 2 x 0 k q0
x x 0
Conduction Heat
flux Supply T
k
T
qL k qL
x xL
W/m2
x xL
0 L x
Page 16
Boundary Conditions

e at ly
H pp Hollow Cylinder or
Su 2
io
n / m hollow sphere
ct W
u
nd T
T
T
o
C x k qb
qa k flu r
r r a
r b
k qa
r r a
He ply
Su m2
a
at
b r
p
W
Heat
T
/
k qb
Supply
Co
nd
r
uc flux
W/m2
r b
t io
n
Page 17
Boundary Conditions

Conduction Convection
Plate
T
Fluid
k h2 (T2 T )
Flow x xL
xL
T1, h1
Convection heat flux Conduction heat flux
from the fluid at T1 to from the surface at
the surface at x = 0 x= 0 into the plate
Convection Conduction
T T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k Fluid h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k
x x 0 Flow x x 0
T2, h2
Page 18
Boundary Conditions

Conduction Convection
Plate
T
Fluid
k h2 (T2 T )
Flow x xL
xL
T1, h1
the surface at x = L x = L into the plate
Convection Conduction
T T
h1 (T1 T x 0 ) k Fluid h2 (T2 T x L ) k
x x 0 Flow x xL
T2, h2
Page 19
Boundary Conditions

Fluid
Flow Hollow Cylinder or
T1, h1 hollow sphere
T
k h2 (T2 T )
r r b
r b
b the surface at r = a r= a into the plate
a
Heat r
T Supply
T
h1 (T1 T r a
) k
r
h1 (T1 T r a ) k
r a
r r a
Fluid
Page 20 Flow
T2, h2
Boundary Conditions

Fluid
Flow Hollow Cylinder or
T1, h1 hollow sphere
T
k h2 (T2 T )
r r b
r b
b the surface at r = b r= b into the plate
a
Heat r
T Supply T
h1 (T1 T r a
) k
r
h2 (T2 T r b ) k
r a r r b
Fluid
Page 21 Flow
T2, h2
Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction
Rectangular Coordinates
2T
0 Governing Equation
x 2
T ( x) c1 x c2
T2 T1
T ( x) x T1
L
K . A.(T1 T2 )
0 L Qx
T = T1 T = T2 x L
L
R
Page 22 K .A
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
1 d dT (r ) g0
r 0 Governing Equation
r dr dr k
dT ( r )
0
dr

at r 0
T (r ) T2 at r b
b g0
T (r ) r c1 ln r c2
2k
0 r g0 r
2
Solving, T (r ) 1 T2
4k b
dT (r ) g 0 r
q(r ) k
T = T1 T = T2 dr 2
Page 23
Cylindrical Coordinates (Solid Cylinder)
Solved Example
For r=1cm
g0 = 2 x 108 W/m3
k = 20 W/(m.C)
T2 = 100 C
b
What will be the
1. Centre temperature T(0)
0 r 2. Heat flux at the boundary surface (r=1cm)
Equations to use (derive)
g r
2
T (r ) 0 1 T2
T = T1 T = T2 4k b
g0r Solution
q(r )
Page 24 2 T(0) = 350 C
q(r) = 106 W/m2
Cylindrical Coordinates (Hollow Cylinder)
Determination of Temperature Distribution
Mathematical formulation of this problem is

d dT ( r )
r dr 0
k in a < r < b
dr
T (r ) c1 ln r c2
b T2 T1
T2 Solving, c1
a ln(b / a )
T1 ln(a )
c2 T1 (T2 T1 )
0 ln(b / a )
r T ( r ) T1 ln(r / a )

T2 T1 ln(b / a )
Page 25
Expression for radial heat flow Q over a length H
The heat flow is determined from,

dT (r )
k Q q (r ).area k 2 rH
dr
k 2 Hc1
b Since, dT (r ) / dr (1 / r )c1
T2 2 kH
a Q (T1 T2 )
T1 ln(b / a )
0 Rearranging,
r
T T2 ln(b / a )
Q 1 where, R
R 2 kH
Page 26
Expression for thermal resistance for length H
ln(b / a )
R
2 kH
k
Above equation can be rearranged as,
ln(b / a ) (b a ) ln[2 bH /(2 aH )]
R
2 kH (b a ) 2 Hk
b
T2 t A1 A0
a R where, Am
T1 kAm ln( A1 A0 )
0 here, A0 = 2aH =area of inner surface of cylinder
r
A1 = 2bH =area of outer surface of cylinder
Am = logarithmic mean area
Page 27
t = b a = thickness of cylinder
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for temperature distribution
The mathematical formulation is given by,
d 2 dT (r )
r 0 in a < r < b
dr dr
c1
a T ( r ) c2
0
r r
ab
where, c1 (T1 T2 )
ba
b bT2 aT1
c2
ba
a br b ra
T (r ) . .T1 . .T2
Page 28 r ba r ba
Spherical Coordinates (Hollow Sphere)
Expression for heat flow rate Q and thermal resistance R
Heat flow rate is determined using the equation,
dT (r )
Q ( 4 r ) k
2
dr
2 c1
a (4r ) k 2 4kc1
0
r r
ab
using, c1 (T1 T2 ) from last slide
ba
b
ab T1 T2
Q 4 k (T1 T2 )
ba R
ba
where, R
Page 29 4 kab
Composite Medium
Example (Furnace Wall)
REFRACTORY LINING 1
REFRACTORY LINING 2
BRICK WALL
FURNACE Ambient
FURNACE WALL
Page 30
Composite Medium
Example (Condenser Water Tube)
Tube Wall
Scale
Cooling Water
Condensing Medium (Steam)

Page 31
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in series)
Fluid
Flow
L1 L2 L3 Tb, hb
Ta
T0 Q
T1
Q
Tb
Fluid T2
Flow T3
Ta, ha
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb Ta Tb
Q Q W
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb R
1 L L L 1
Ra ; R1 1 ; R2 2 ; R3 3 ; Rb R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Page 32 Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak3 Ahb
Composite Medium
Composite Slab (resistance in parallel)
Insulated
T1 T2
B
Q W
R
R R A Req. p RE
T1 A C E T2
1 1 1 1

Req. p RB RC RD
D
Insulated
T1 RA RB RE T2
Rc
Page 33
RD
Composite Medium
Composite Cylinder
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
H
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
k2 k3 Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
Q
k1 Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
ha 1 1 r 1 r
Ra ; R1 ln 1 ; R2 ln 2
hb 2r0 Hha 2 Hk1 r0 2 Hk 2 r1
1 r 1
R3 ln 3 ; Rb
2 Hk3 r2 2r3 Hhb
Ta Tb
Q W
R
Page 34 R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Composite Medium
Composite Spheres
Ta T0 T1 T2 T3 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Tb
ha Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
1 1 r1 r0 1 r2 r1
k1 Ra ; R1 ; R2
k3 4r02 ha 4 k1 r1r0 4k 2 r2 r1
k2
1 r3 r2 1
R3 ; Rb
hb 4 k3 r3 r2 4r32 hb
Ta Tb
Q W
R
Page 35 R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Composite Medium
Critical Thickness of Insulation
H Convection
into an
Heat Loss, q
ambient at
T,h0
r1
T1
ro
rc
Insulation Radius, r
Page 36
Composite Medium
Critical Thickness of Insulation
The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by
Ti T
Convection Q
H into an Rins R0
ambient at
T,h0 1 r 1
Rins ln 0 R0
r1 2kH ri 2 r0 Hh0
T1
ro dQ 2kH (Ti T ) 1 k
2
2
0
dr0 ln(r0 / ri ) k /(h0 r0 ) r0 h0 r0
For Cylinder For Sphere
k 2k
r0c r0 c
Page 37
h0 h0
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Cylinder)
Calculate,
1. Heat loss from tube for length H=10m
7.6 cm 2. Temperature drops resulting in thermal
resistances
cm
5
Determination of heat loss
Ta=330C Ta Tb
ha=400 W/(m2.C) Q W
Insulation
Ra R1 R2 Rb
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C) 1 1
Ra
2r0 Hha 2 0.025 10 400
K = 15 W/(m C) Ra 1.59 10 3 C / W
Ambient air
1 r 1 3.8
Tb=30C R1 ln 1 ln
hb= 60 W/(m2.C) 2Hk1 r0 2 10 15 2.5
Page 38 R1 0.44 10 3 C / W
Composite Medium
Calculate,
resistances
cm
5
Determination of heat loss
Ta=330C
ha=400 W/(m2.C) R2 33.65 10 3 C / W
Insulation
t =2 cm Rb 4.2110 3 C / W
K=0.2 W(m.C)
R Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb 39.89 10 3 C / W
K = 15 W/(m C) 330 30
Ambient air Q 3
7521 W
Tb=30C 39.89 10
hb= 60 W/(m2.C)
Page 39
Composite Medium
Calculate,
resistances
cm
5
Determination of temperature drops
Ta=330C Ta T0 T0 T1 T1 T2 T2 Tb
ha=400 W/(m2.C) Q
Insulation
Ra R1 R2 Rb
t =2 cm
K=0.2 W(m.C)
Thotgas QRa 12.0C
Ttube QR1 3.3C
K = 15 W/(m C) Tinsulation QR2 253.0C
Ambient air
Tb=30C Toutside QRb 31.7C
hb= 60 W/(m2.C)
Page 40
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Composite Wall)
2 x 4 wood studs have actual dimensions of
4.13 x 9.21 cm with k = 0.1 W/m.C
Calculate,
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection 2. R value of the wall
h=15 W/m2 C
Thermal resistance model

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69 8cm
k=0.96 Two parallel heat flow paths are possible
1.9cm
INSULATION, k=0.04 1. Through the studs
k=0.48 1.9cm 2. Through the insulation
40.6 cm
Inside Air Convection Rsheath Rsheath

h=7.5 W/m2 C Rinsul
2x 4 STUDS outside inside
Rbrick Tair
Tair
inside
outside
Rconvection Rconvection
Rsheath Rsheath
outside Rstud inside
Page 41 outside inside
Note: k is expressed in W/m C

Composite Medium
Calculate,
2. R value of the wall
GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection

h=15 W/m2 C Heat flow through the studs
Area = 0.0413m2/unit depth
k=0.96
Heat flow occurs through 6 thermal resistances
1.9cm
1. Convection Resistance outside of brick
INSULATION, k=0.04
k=0.48 1.9cm 2. Conduction resistance in brick
40.6 cm 3. Conduction resistance through outer sheet
4. Conduction resistance through wood stud
Inside Air Convection 5. Conduction resistance through inner sheet
h=7.5 W/m2 C 6. Convection resistance on inside
2x 4 STUDS
Recall,
Rconvection 1 / hA Rconduction x / kA
Rtotal 1.614 2.807 0.48 22.3 0.96 3.23 31.39C / W
Page 42
Composite Medium
Calculate,

h=15 W/m2 C Heat flow through the insulation

k=0.96 1.9cm The five of the materials are same, but the
INSULATION, k=0.04 resistances involve different area terms, i.e.,
k=0.48 1.9cm
40.6 - 4.13 cm instead of 4.13 cm.
40.6 cm
Inside Air Convection

h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS Thus the total resistance of the insulation
section is given below
Rtotal 7.337 C / W
Page 43
Composite Medium
Calculate,

h=15 W/m2 C 1. Overall heat transfer coefficient
Overall resistance is obtained by combining

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69 8cm the parallel resistances as calculated earlier.
k=0.96 1.9cm
1
INSULATION, k=0.04 Roverall
k=0.48 1.9cm (1 / 31.39) (1 / 7.337)
40.6 cm
5.947C / W
h=7.5 W/m2 C Overall heat transfer coefficient is found by,
2x 4 STUDS
T
q UAT (here, A = 0.406m2)
Roverall
1 1
U 0.414W / m 2 C
RA (5.947)(0.406)
Page 44
Composite Medium
Calculate,

h=15 W/m2 C 2. R Value of the wall
The resistance of the wall is calculated using

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69 8cm the overall heat transfer coefficient, as given
k=0.96 1.9cm below:
INSULATION, k=0.04
k=0.48 1.9cm
1 1
40.6 cm
Rvalue 2.414C.m 2 / W
U 0.414
h=7.5 W/m2 C
2x 4 STUDS
Page 45
Composite Medium
Solved Example (Critical Thickness of Insulation)
Calculate, the critical thickness of rubber and the
maximum heat transfer rate per metre length of
conductor.
The temperature of rubber is not to exceed 65 C (due
Ambient at to heat generated within).
30C, 8.5 W/m2K
Critical thickness
r0 c k / ho 0.155 / 8.5 0.0182 m

r = 5mm
Maximum heat transfer rate
1 r 1 0.0182
Rins ln 0 ln 1.32
2kH ri 2 0.155 0.005
C /W m
1 1
R0 1.02 C / W m
Rubber 2r0 Hh0 2 0.0182 8.5
k = 0.155 W/mK
Ti T 65 30
Q 14.89 W / m
Page 46
Rins R0 1.32 1.02
Heat Source Systems
Plane wall with heat generation
Expression for mid plane temperature is given

by,
g 2
T0 L Tw
2k
q = heat generated
The temperature distribution can also be written
x=0
per unit volume in alternative form as:
2
T Tw x
Tw 1
T0 Tw L
x
Tw
L
L
Page 47
Conduction-Convection Systems
Fins / Extended Surfaces
Necessity for fins
Biot Number
hx ( x / k ) Internal Conductive resistance

=
k 1/ h Surface Convective resistance
FIN TYPES
Page 48 LONGITUDINAL RADIAL FIN

RECTANGULAR FIN
Governing Equation (Rectangular Fin)
Net Heat Conducted Heat Convected = 0
[ Aq x Aq x dx ] hPdx(T T ) 0
dqconv hPdx(T T )
Aq x Aq x dx
t
hP(T T ) 0
dx
A
d
Aq x hP (T T ) 0
qx qx+dx dx
base
d dT
x kA hP (T T ) 0
dx Z dx dx
L d 2T hP
2
(T T ) 0
dx kA
d 2 hP
2
m 2
0 where, m & T T
Page 49 dx kA
Boundary Conditions
LONG FIN
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2
( x) 0 in x 0
dx SHORT FIN
( x) T0 T 0 at x 0 (end insulated)
( x) 0 as x
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2
( x) 0 in 0 x L
dx SHORT FIN
(x) T0 T 0 at x 0 ( end not insulated)
d (x)
0 at x L
dx
d 2 ( x)
2
m 2 ( x) 0 in 0 x L
dx
(x) T0 T 0 at x 0
d (x)
Page 50 k he ( x) 0 at x L
dx
Types of Fin Boundaries
Temperature Distribution Heat transferred by fin
Type of FIN
T T Q
boundary
Tb T
Long Fin
e-mx (Tb-T)(hPkA)0.5
(TL= T)
Short Fin Cosh m(L-X)
(hPkA)0.5 (Tb-T) tanh (mL) *
(end insulated) Cosh (mL)
Short Fin Cosh[m( L X )] (hL / mk ) Sinh[m( L X )] (T T ) tanh(mL) ( hL / mk ) (hPkA) 0.5
b
(end not insulated) Cosh(mL) (hL / mk ) Sinh(mL) 1 (hL / mk ) tanh(mL)
Specified End TL T
Sinh(mx) Sinh[m( L x)] Cosh(mL) 1
Temperature Tb T [(Tb T ) (TL T )] (hPkA) 0.5
At x=L; T=TL Sinh(mL)
Sinh(mL)
* For higher values of mL (i.e., m=4), tanh mL = 0.999 1.

Thus Qshort fin Qlong fin for higher values of mL
Page 51
Performance Parameters
Fin Efficiency
Actual heat transfer through fin Q fin

Ideal heat transfer through fin if entire Qideal
fin surface were at fin base temperature , T0
In practical applications, a finned heat transfer surface is composed of the
finned surfaces and the unfinned portion. In such cases total heat transfer is used.
Qtotal = Qfin + Qunfinned

= af h 0 + ( a af ) h 0
Where, a = total heat transfer area (i.e., fin surface + unfinned surface)
af = heat transfer area of fins only
Qtotal = [+(1-)] a h 0 a h 0
Where, = +1 = area weighted fin efficiency

= af / a
Page 52
Fin Efficiency
Fin Efficiency,
Each curve is specific for
specific fin configuration
L (2h/kt)0.5
Fin efficiency curves are available for fins of

various configuration (eg. Axial, circular disk
Page 53 fins of various length, thickness etc)
Fin Effectiveness
Q with fin
Effectiveness
Q without fin
Although the addition of fins on a surface increases surface area, it also increases
thermal resistance over the portion of the surface where fins are attached. Therefore
there may be situations in which the addition of fins does not improve heat transfer.
Pk / (Ah) > 1 (to justify usage of fins)
Page 54
Solved Example
A steel rod is exposed to ambient air. If one end of the
rod is maintained at a temperature of 120 C, calculate
the heat loss from the rod
The condition for other end of the rod is not specified

explicitly. By considering L/D ratio, it appears that a
long fin assumption is applicable. Using the simplest
analysis to solve, computing mL:
Diameter = 2cm hP hD 4h 4 64
Length = 25 cm m2
k = 50 W / m. C kA ( / 4) D 2 k kD 50 0.02
m 16 and mL 16 0.25 4
Tbase=120C
Tamb = 20C Therefore, expression for Qlong fin can be used.
h = 64 W / m2. C
Q Tb T hPkA Tb T (D) D 2 kh
4

120 20 (0.02) 3 50 64 25.1 W
2
Page 55
Solved Example (Fin Efficiency)
Circular disk fins of constant thickness are attached on a 2.5 cm OD
L tube with a spacing of 100 fins per 1m length of tube.
Fin Properties: Aluminium k = 160 W / m.C, t = 1mm L = 1 cm
Tube wall temperature = 170 C; Ambient temperature = 30 C
Heat transfer coeff. of ambient , h = 200 W/m2. C.
Calculate,
1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
t 2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
CIRCULAR DISK FIN 3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
Fin Efficiency
Fin efficiency is determined using the graph shown aside.
The following parameters are calculated, firstly:
Fin Efficiency,
ro/ri 2h 2 200
L 1 10 2 0.5
kt 160 10 3
ro 1.25 1
1.8
ri 1.25
L (2h/kt)0.5 The fin efficiency is determined from graph
Page 56
0.9
Calculate,
L 1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency

t Ratio of heat transfer area for fin to the total heat transfer area,
CIRCULAR DISK FIN Fin Surface per cm of tube length = 2(r02-ri2) = 2[2.252-1.252]
= 21.99 cm2
Tube OD = 2.5 cm
100 fins per 1m tube length Total heat transfer surface per cm of tube length
kfin = 160 W/mC = 2 (r02-ri2) + 2ri (1 t)
t = 1mm; L = 1cm = 2[2.252-1.252] + 2(1.25)(1 0.1)
Ttube = 170C; Tamb = 30C
= 29.06 cm2
hamb = 200 W/m2. C
= af / a = 21.99 / 29.06 = 0.757
Area Weighted Fin Efficiency, = +1 = 0.757(0.9) + 0.243

= 0.924
Page 57
Calculate,
L 1. Fin Efficiency and area weighted fin efficiency
2. Heat lost to the ambient air per 1m length of tube
3. Heat loss with that if there were no fins on tube
Heat lost to ambient per 1m length of tube

t Total heat transfer surface a per 1m of tube length a = 29.06
x 100 cm2 = 0.29 m2
CIRCULAR DISK FIN
Tube OD = 2.5 cm Q = ah0 = 0.924 x 0.29 x 200 (170 30) = 7503 W

100 fins per 1m tube length
kfin = 160 W/mC
t = 1mm; L = 1cm Heat lost per 1m length of tube with no fins
Ttube = 170C; Tamb = 30C
hamb = 200 W/m2. C Qno fin = 2rih0 = 2 x 0.0125 x 200 x (170 30) = 2199 W
Clearly, the addition of fins increases the heat dissipation by a

Page 58
factor of about 3.4
Transient Conduction
If the surface temperature of a solid body is suddenly altered, the

temperature within the body begins to change over time.
Variation of temperature both with position and time makes determination of

temperature distribution under transient condition more complicated.
In some situations, variation of temperature with position is negligible under

transient state, hence the temperature is considered to vary only with time.
The analysis under the above assumption is called lumped system

analysis.
Biot Number, Bi = (hx) / k
Lumped System Analysis is applicable only when Bi < 0.1
Page 59
Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
Q Lumped Heat Analysis
The convective heat loss from the body (shown aside) has its
magnitude equal to decrease in internal energy of solid.
dT
Volume V Q hA(T T ) pcV
dt
Area A
dT hA
dt
T T T pcV
T hA
On Integration, ln(T T ) t C1
T=T0 at t=0 pcV
T0 S Solving and rearranging,

T T
exp (hA / pcV ).t
T0 T
1/hA
Cth=cV
Page 60
Biot Number
It is a non-dimensional parameter used to test the validity of the lumped heat
capacity approach.
internal resistance hL c
Bi
convective resistance k
The characteristic length (Lc) for some common shapes is given below:
Plane Wall (thickness 2L) Long cylinder (radius R)
Lc
A.2L
L
R 2 .L R
Lc
2.A 2R.L 2
Sphere (radius R) Cube (side L)
( 4 / 3)R 3 R L3 L
Lc Lc
4R 2 3 6L 2
6
The lumped heat capacity approach for simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes can be used if Bi < 0.1
Page 61
Response time of a Temperature measuring Instrument
T T
exp (hA / pcV ).t
T0 T
For a rapid response of temperature measuring device, the index, (hAt/cV) should
be large to make the exponential term reach zero faster.
This can be achieved by decreasing wire diameter, density and specific heat or by
increasing value of h.
The quantity (cV/hA) has the units of time and is called time constant of system.
Hence at time t=t* (one time constant),
T T
e 1 0.368
T0 T
At the end of time period t* the temperature difference between the body and
ambient would be 0.368 of the initial temperature difference.
In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2 percent.
This reduction in 63.2 percent of initial temperature difference is called sensitivity
Lower the value of time constant, better the response of instrument.
Page 62
Systems with Negligible Surface Resistance
When convective heat transfer coefficient at the surface is
assumed to be infinite, the surface temperature remains
Large Flat Plate with
Negligible Surface Resistance
constant at all the time (t>0) and its value is equal to that of
ambient temperature.
The systems exhibiting above said conditions are considered to
have negligible surface resistance
An important application of this process is in heat treatment of
T0(x) for
t=0
metals by quenching, viz., the dropping of a metallic sphere
Ts Ts = T (t>0) initially at 300 C into a 20 C oil bath.
Mathematical formulation of this case is :
x 2T 1 T
L 0 x L
x 2
t
T T0 ( x ) at t 0 for 0 x L (initial condition)
T Ts at x 0 for t 0 Boundary
T Ts at x L for t 0 Conditions
Page 63
Heat flow in an Infinitely Thick Plate
Semi-infinite body
Semi-Infinite Plate A semi-infinite body is one in which at any instant of time there
is always a point where the effect of heating / cooling at one of
its boundaries is not felt at all.
At this point the temperature remains unchanged.
Ts Mathematical formulation is :
Qo at t=0 2 T 1 T

To
x t
2
x
with initial and boundary conditions,
T T0 at t 0 for all x
T Ts at x 0 for all t 0
T T0 as x for all t 0
Page 64
Systems with Finite Surface and Internal Resistance
Mathematical formulation :
Infinitely Large Flat Plate
of Finite Thickness (2L) 2T 1 T

x 2
t
T T0 at t 0 (for - L x L)
h T
h 0 at x 0 (centre line)
x
T h
T T (T T ) at x L
at t=0 x k
-x
x
x=-L
x=0
x=L
Page 65
Chart Solutions of Transient Heat Conduction Problems
Heisler Charts (by Heisler, 1947)
Infinite Plate
Time History
Mid Plane
hL/k
T(x,t) - T
Ti- T 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.5
0.8
0.9
1
Fourier number, /L2

Page 66
Infinite Plate
Time History
Any Position, x
1
x/L
0.2
0.4
T(x,t) - T 0.6
Ti- T
0.8
0.9
1
0
Page 67
0.1 100
Biot Number, hL/k
Infinite Plate
Heat Flow
hL/k
0.001 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 10 20 40 50
Q/Qo
h 2
Bi 2
Fo
k2 Where, Qo cV (To T )
Page 68
Lumped System Analysis
Solved Example
Determination of Time required to cool
4 mass 5.5
Volume V R 3 2.037 10 3
3 density 2700
Aluminium Ball R 3V / 4 0.0786m
1/ 3
Radius
= 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K 5.5 kg Tinitial=290C R
Characteristic L c 0.0262m
k = 205 W/mK Length 3
T T hA
exp .t
T0 T cV
T 95C
T 15C
T0 290C
Tfluid = 15C hA 3h 3 58
9.1 10 4 / s
h = 58 W / m2. C cV cR 2700 900 0.0786
95 15 80
exp(9.1 10 4.t )
290 15 275
Time required to cool the
aluminium ball to 95C
Page 69
? 3.4375 exp(9.1 10 4.t )
t 1357 s
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
Thermocouple Wire a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Lc = V/As = (1/6)D = (1/6)x0.001 = 1.67x10-4 m
Bi = hL/k = (210x 1.67x10-4) x 35 = 0.001 < 0.1
Gas T
Junction (Sphere)
Therefore, lumped system analysis is applicable.
h=210 W/m2 C
D= 1mm
= 8500 kg/m3 In order to read 99% of initial temperature difference
k = 35 W/mK Ti T between the junction and the gas, we must
c = 320 J/kg K have T T
0.01
T0 T
How long will it take for the
thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
?
Page 70
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples
Solved Example
The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by
Thermocouple Wire a thermocouple whose junction can be approximated
as a 1mm diameter sphere (shown aside)
Determine how long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 99% of initial temperature difference
Time
T T
Gas T
Junction (Sphere) 0.01 exp (hA / pcV).t
h=210 W/m2 C
D= 1mm
T0 T
= 8500 kg/m3 hA s h 210 1
k = 35 W/mK 0 . 462 s
c = 320 J/kg K cV cL c 8500 320 1.67 10 4
How long will it take for the
exp (0.462).t 0.01
thermocouple to read 99 %
of Initial Temperature
difference
? t = 10s
Page 71
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
A water pipe is to be buried in soil at

sufficient depth from the surface to prevent
freezing in winter.
What minimum depth is required to
prevent the freezing of pipe when soil is at
uniform temperature of Ti = 10 C, the
surface is subjected to a uniform temperature
of T0 = -15 C continuously for 50 days.
Also the pipe surface temperature should
Page 72
Transient Conduction in
Semi-infinite Solids
Solved Example
Water Pipe
(to be buried) Tsurface = -15 C
?
SOIL Tsoil = 10 C
Condition : Tpipe wall should not fall below 0 C
What burial depth is needed to
prevent freezing of the pipe ?
Page 73
Temperature Distribution in
Semi-infinite Solid
T(x,t) - Tsurface
Tinitial- Tsurface
x
Error Function,
Page 74 2 t
Determination of Burial depth
T ( x, t ) T0 0 15
( x, t ) 0 .6
Ti T0 10 15
For ( x, t ) 0.6, 0.6 (from graph)
For 0.2 10 m / s and t 50 24 3600s

-6 2
the error function is given by,

x x
0.538 x
2 t 2 0.2 10 -6 50 24 3600
Page 75
Determination of Burial depth
0.538 x 0.6
0.6
x 1.12m
0.538
The pipe should be buried at least to a depth of

1.12 m to prevent freezing.
Page 76
Application of Heisler Charts
Aluminium Slab
Thickness=10cm
Tinitial=500C
= 8.4x10-5 m2/s
= 2700 kg/m3
c = 900 J/kg K
k = 215 W/mK
Tfluid = 100C
h = 1200 W / m2. C
Mid-plane Temperature and Surface

Page 77
Temperature after 1 min?
Determination of Mid plane Temperature
2L=10 cm ; L = 5 cm ; t = 1min = 60 s
t/L2 = (8.4x10-5 x 60) / 0.052 = 2.016

Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28
Using above two parameters in Heisler Chart,
T T
0.68
T0 T
T 100 0.68(500 100) 372C
Page 78
Determination of Surface Temperature
For x/L = 1 and Bi = 0.28,
T T
0.88
T0 T
T 100 0.88(372 100) 339.36C
Page 79
Energy Loss
h2t/k2 = (12002x8.4x10-5 x 60) / 2152 = 0.157
Bi = hL/k = (1200x0.05) x 215 = 0.28
Using above 2 parameters in Heisler Chart for
Heat flow, Q/Q0 = 0.32

Q0 cV T0 T
c(2L)(T0 T )
A A
2700 900 0.1 400
Page 80 97.2 10 J / m
6 2
Heat removed per unit surface area
Q
0.32 97.2 10 6
A
31.1 10 J / m
6 2
Page 81

Thermodynamics: Study of Heat and Work Transfer (Quantitatively)

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Thermodynamics: Study of Heat and Work Transfer (Quantitatively)

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Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer

Students Class Room Ambience

Teaching Learning Process in a Class Room

However, higher potential difference leads to increase in entropy

The transfer of energy in a solid or fluid via molecular contact

Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

Convection occurs in liquids and gases.

Newtons Law of Cooling

Convection Process h(W/m2-K)

Single phase fluids (gases and liquids)

The emissive power of a black body over all wave

k Heat flow out

Heat flow in [Aq]x+x

Net rate of heat Rate of energy Rate of increase

k Heat flow out

Heat flow in [Aq]x+x

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

T (x,t) | x=0 = T (0,t) = T1

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Prescribed Heat Flux BC (Second kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Convection BC (Third kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Convection BC (Third kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Convection BC (Third kind)

Prescribed Temperature BC (First kind)

Convection BC (Third kind)

Mathematical formulation of this problem is

The heat flow is determined from,

The mathematical formulation is given by,

Heat flow rate is determined using the equation,

Condensing Medium (Steam)

The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by

Thermal resistance model

Inside Air Convection Rsheath Rsheath

Page 41 outside inside

Note: k is expressed in W/m C

GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection

GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection

COMMON BRICK, k =0.69 8cm

Inside Air Convection

GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection

Overall resistance is obtained by combining

GYPSUM SHEATH Outside Air Convection

The resistance of the wall is calculated using

r0 c k / ho 0.155 / 8.5 0.0182 m

Expression for mid plane temperature is given

per unit volume in alternative form as:

Necessity for fins

hx ( x / k ) Internal Conductive resistance

Page 48 LONGITUDINAL RADIAL FIN

Net Heat Conducted Heat Convected = 0

* For higher values of mL (i.e., m=4), tanh mL = 0.999 1.

Actual heat transfer through fin Q fin

Qtotal = Qfin + Qunfinned

Where, = +1 = area weighted fin efficiency

Fin efficiency curves are available for fins of

Pk / (Ah) > 1 (to justify usage of fins)

The condition for other end of the rod is not specified