The Nervous System and

Nerve Impulses
Section 8.1
 Specification-topic 8
3 Describe the structure and function of sensory, relay and motor
neurones including the role of Schwann cells and myelination.
4 Describe how a nerve impulse (action potential) is conducted
along an axon including changes in membrane permeability to
sodium and potassium ions and the role of the nodes of Ranvier.
5 Describe the structure and function of synapses, including the role
of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine.

7 Explain how the nervous systems of organisms can cause

effectors to respond as exemplified by pupil dilation and contraction.
8 Compare mechanisms of coordination in plants and animals,ie
nervous and hormonal, including the role of IAA in phototropism
(details of individual mammalian hormones are not required).
stimulus receptor sensory neurone processor motor neurone
effector response
page 197
Structures, types of Neurones
1.Identify the neurons as-
motor, sensory, or relay
(interneurone or connector
neurone).

1.Which neurons are part of

the peripheral nervous system,
central nervous system or
both?

2.Draw arrows to show the

direction of the electrical
impulse

3. Label the following on the

diagrams - cell body, axon,
dendrites, nucleus, myelin
sheath, terminal branches,
nucleus of the Schwann
Name parts of a neuron and describe their function
Cell body-
contains nucleus and cell organelles
Nucleus-
contains genetic material
Dendrites -
conduct electrical impulses towards the cell body
Axons-
conduct electrical impulses away from the cell body
Terminal branches-
form synapses with other neurons
Schwann cell-
make the myelin sheath
Myelin sheath-
fatty insulating layer
Nodes of Ranvier-
parts of neuron with no myelin sheath, Electrical impulses jump
from one node to the next
 Q8.1 Draw up a table comparing the structure and location of motor, relay and
sensory neurones. Use figure 8.5 AND 8.6 to help
Motor Relay Sensory
General Cells have cell body, short Cells have cell body, short Cells have cell body, short

structure _________ and long _________ and ________ and long___________.

__________. ____________ axon.

Location of Cell body and dendrites Cell bodies __________ Cell body and dendrites

cell body ________ CNS, axons CNS. __________ CNS. Cell body is in

relative to __________ CNS. _________________ at entrance

CNS route to the spinal cord.

Dendrites Dendrites synapse with

Dendrites synapse with other Dendrites synapse with other ___________________________

neurones in ____________. neurones in _____________. ________

Axons Axons synapse with
______________________
______________________
_________.
Function Conduct impulse to an
______________________
______________
.
Axons synapse with
Axons synapse with
___________________________
_________________.
________.
Conduct impulse to the
Connect ________________
_____________.
with appropriate
_________________.
 Motor Relay Sensory
General Cells have cell body Cells have cell Cells have cell body
structure at one end, short body, short on a side branch,
dendrites and long dendrites and short long dendrites and
axon. or long axon. shorter axon.
Location of Cell body and Cell bodies inside Cell body and
cell body dendrites inside CNS. dendrites outside
relative to CNS, axons outside CNS. Cell body is in
CNS CNS. dorsal root ganglia
at entrance route to
the spinal cord.

Dendrites Dendrites synapse Dendrites synapse Dendrites synapse

with other neurones with other neurones with sensory
in CNS. in CNS. receptor cells.
Axons Axons synapse with
Axons synapse with
effector cells Axons synapse with
other neurones in
(muscles and other neurones.
CNS.
glands).
Function Conduct impulse Connect sensory Conduct impulse
from the CNS to an neurones with from the receptors
effector (muscle or appropriate motor to the CNS.
gland). neurone.
Grey matter = numerous cell bodies and few
myelinated axons
White matter = very few cell bodies and mainly
 REFLEX ARC
1. Define a reflex-
rapid involuntary response to stimuli important for
protection and survival
2. What is the advantage of a reflex pathway
important for protection and survival
3. Label the reflex arc. Add the central canal, spinal
nerves-dorsal and ventral routes, and dorsal route
ganglion
4. Use arrows to show the direction of the electrical
impulse.
5. Draw an arrow to label ONE synapse.
6. Describe the role of the
a. Receptor
receptors detect the stimuli (the stronger the stimulus the greater the change in
polarity across the membranes).
b. Effector
Effectors carry out the response (e.g. muscles or glands)
7. Use page 198 of your textbook to label the following diagram. Identify
the receptor, effector, sensory neuron, relay neurons, motor neurons, stimulus,
response

8. As well as synapsing with relay neurons in the reflex arc, sensory

neurons synapse with neurons in the brain. What is the significance of this?
two relay neurons synapsing with two motor neurons- one
stimulating the triceps and one stimulating the biceps- remember
that they are antagonistic
Synapse to the brain so that you become aware of the stimulus
(e.g. pain) and can then use voluntary nervous system to respond in
some way. In addition we can remember what caused the pain and
avoid that particular situation that caused the pain.
Nervous System: Control of
pupil size

9. Label the radial and circular muscles

in the diagram above.
10. Which pupil is constricted? Dilated?
11. Annotate the diagram above to
show when a muscle is contracted
(shortened) or when it is relaxed.
 Nervous System: The
papillary reflex

12. Colour in the sensory neurone in red

and the motor neurons in green.
13. Label the retina and the iris muscles.
Which is the receptor? Effector?
14. Answer Q8.5- 8.8.
 The Resting Potential
Why was a squid neuron
used to measure nerve
impulses?

When no nerve
impulses were initiated
the voltmeter measured
-70mV.

This is the potential

difference what does
this mean?
Resting potential
 Nerve impulse - Important terms
to understand
Potential difference-
the difference in charge (measured in
voltage).
Polarised (membrane) (adjective)
uneven distribution of charge across a
membrane resulting in a potential
difference
Resting potential
the potential difference across a
membrane at rest due to the uneven
 Nerve impulse - Important
terms to understand
Action potential-
the large change in potential difference
across the membrane, the nerve
impulse
Voltage gated channels-
Channel proteins in the membrane
which open due to a change in voltage
across the membrane (i.e.
depolarisation)
SNAB Interactiv tutorial
Activity 8.2- slide 5-10
Describe the structure of an
axon membrane and explain
how each part contributes to
the resting potential.
Na+/K+ pump-
pumps 3 Na ions out for every 2 K ions it pumps into the
axon
K+ channels-
Are open. K diffuses out down the concentration
gradient resulting in increased negative charge inside
the axon, so some K are attracted back in moving
down the electrical gradient. Eventually a
electrochemical equilibrium is reached (no gradient)-
-70mv and there is no net movement of K ions
Voltage gated Na+ channels -
most are closed.
Voltage gated K+ channels -
closed
 The Action Potential
http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__the_nerve_impulse.ht
ml

SNAB
Interactive
tutorial
Activity 8.2-
slide 1- 4
 Nerve Impulse
Depolarisation
Reversal of the potential difference across the membrane, the
inside of the axon becomes positive compared to the outside.
E.g. -70mV becomes +40mV
Repolarisation
The return of the potential difference to the resting potential.
E.g. +40 mV back to -70mV
Hyperpolarisation
When the potential difference becomes more negative on the
inside than a the normal resting potential.
E.g. -70mV to -80mV
Concentration gradient
A difference in concentration
Electrical gradient
A difference in the distribution of electrical charge
Electrochemical gradient
A difference in concentration and the distribution of electrical
charge
Action Potential
 Axon Membrane Summary
Membrane permeability
Neurons, like all cells, maintain different
concentrations of certain ions across their cell
membranes. Neurons pump out positively charged
_ sodium ___ ions. In addition, they pump in
positively charged __ potassium _ ions . Thus there is
a high concentration of sodium ions present
_ outside _ the neuron, and a high concentration of
potassium ions _ inside ___. The neuronal membrane
also contains specialized proteins called _ protein channels
_, which form pores in the membrane that are
selectively permeable to particular ions. Thus _sodium channels
__ allow sodium ions through the membrane while
potassium channels allow potassium ions through.
The resting potential
Under resting conditions, the membrane is _ more __
permeable to potassium ions than to sodium ions. So there is a
slow _ outward _leak of potassium ions that is _ greater _ than
the inward leak of sodium ions. This means that the membrane
has a charge on the inside face that is _ negative ___ relative to
the outside, as more positively charged ions flow out of the
neuron than flow in. In addition many K+ ions which have diffused
out due to the _concentration _ gradient will be _ attracted _
back in by the _ negative __ charge inside the cell. K+ ions are
moving due to the _electrochemical_ gradient not just the
concentration gradient. The electrochemical equilibrium which is
in place results in the resting potential of__-70 _ mV.

SNAB
Interactiv
tutorial Activity
8.2- slide 12-
14
The Action Potential-
threshold
Once the stimulation reaches at least the _threshold_ level the voltage
gated sodium channels change _shape___ , open and positively charged
sodium ions diffuse _into___ the neuron and make the membrane
potential _less negative_____. This change in membrane potential causes
more sodium channels to open eventually resulting in the inside becoming
momentarily _positive_____ in comparison to the outside- the cell is said to
be_depolarised________ This is an example of _positive__ feedback.
The sodium channels _close_ spontaneously 0.5ms after opening. Depolarisation
leads to the _opening_ of the voltage gated potassium channels, allowing potassium
ions to _leave_the cell. Thus, there is first an influx of sodium ions (leading to
massive deplorisation) followed by a rapid efflux of potassium ions from the
neuron (leading to_repolarisation_). This repolarisation causes the potassium ion
channels to _close_. However they respond rather slowly so K+ continue to
diffuse out of the cell even after the membrane is completely repolarised (back to
the resting potential). This results in _hyperpolarisation_ Excess ions are
subsequently pumped in/out of the neuron by the _Na+/K+ pump_so that the
_resting potential_ is restored.
This temporary switch in membrane potential(depolariation,
repolarisation) is called the_action potential_. The cycle of
_depolarisation_and repolarization is extremely rapid, taking only
about 2 milli-seconds (0.002 seconds) and thus allows neurons to
fire action potentials in rapid bursts, a common feature in neuronal
communication. An action potential will only be propagated if the
initial depolarisation reaches a minimum _threshold value____.
After the sodium ion channels close they are _inactivated for a
short period of time. This means that no change in voltage can
stimulate them to open. This time is know as the
_refractory_period. This period has TWO consequences-
_Nerve impulses can pass in only one direction_______
_There is an upper limit to the frequency of nerve impulses
 Refractory period
Short period of time
after an action
potential during
which this part of
the membrane
cannot respond to
further stimulation

This is because the

voltage gated
sodium channels are
inactive (unable to
open)

Therefore the action

potential cannot go
backwards
 Conduction
of the
impulse
along the
axon
OR
Propagation
of the
impulse
along the
axon

Which
 Transmission/conduction of an axon
potential is unidirectional because of the
refractory __________period. A change in
voltage leads to the opening of thechannels
sodium

___________
Na+ and _ ___ ions diffuse.
After these channels open they become _
inactive

___ for a certain time. During this

time a voltageNOT
change will _ __ cause
them to open.
Speed of impulse depends on -
1. diameter of neuron
2. myelination
 Axon potentials can be transmitted /conducted
along myelinated and non-myelinated axons.
o Non-myelinated axons: Depolarisation in one
part of the axon sets up _ local currents __-
where positive ions flow from ___________
positive to
_ __
negative regions (NO movement across
membranes here). These ____________
local currents

stimulate voltage gated sodium ion channels in

the neighbouring part of the membrane to
_______.
open This results in an ___________
action potential if

the ___________
threshold value of depolarisation is
exceeded.
Myelinated axons: The myelin sheath
acts as an _____________.
electrical insulator
Action
potentials cannot form where myelin is
present. Therefore they can only form
at the _____________-
Node of Ranvier where there is
no myelin. Therefore local circuits can
form between one ___ node and a

neighbouring one and as a result the

action potential jumps from one ______ node

to another. This _________

increases the rate of
conduction because action potentials do
not have to be formed at every point
along the axon. Saltatory conduction
Compare the actions done
with these pieces of
equipment

Which is an all-or-nothing response?

Action potential Crash Course
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=OZG8M_ldA1M
Transmission of the impulse
across the synapse
 Different types of
synapses

Red synapse = inhibitory synapse

Green synapse
Inhibitory = excitatory
and excitatory synapse
synapses- all synapsing
to ONE post-synaptic neurone
 Excitatory Synapses
ONE action potential arriving from ONE pre-
synaptic neurone is not enough to produce an
action potential in the post synaptic neurone.

Does not reach the threshold level of

depolarisation across the post-synaptic
membrane.

Spatial summation impulses from several

neurones arrive at the post synaptic neurone

Temporal summation several impulses arrive

from one neurone in a short space of time.
Q 8.14
a). Spatial summation: a larger insect means more impulses
from several neurons arrive at the synapse and are more likely
to trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane
b) Temporal summation: With a moving butterfly several
impulses are conducted along one neurone to the synapse
making it more likely for an action potential to be set up in the
postsynaptic membrane
 Inhibitory Synapses
Inhibitory Synapses
What happens at an inhibitory synapse?
Chloride and potassium channels open causing a
more negative potential difference
(hyperpolarisation)- depolarisation above the
threshold is less likely
The Synapse Crash Course
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VitFvNvRIIY
Q 8.15 - see page 200
Constriction of pupils-
Inhibitory synapses connected to radial
muscles resulting in them relaxing
Excitatory synapses connected to circular
muscles stimulating contraction
Dilation of pupils-
Inhibitory synapses connected to circular
muscles stimulating contraction
Excitatory synapses connected to radial
muscles resulting in them relaxing
Q8.4 Make a list of key words to distinguish the features of:
a nervous and b hormonal control.

Nervous Hormonal
neurones blood
impulses chemical
electrical (and chemical)
slow
action potentials
synapses long-term
rapid widespread
short-term target cells
specific receptors
response local
muscle cell or gland
 Nervous vs. Hormonal
control
Nervous Hormonal

Faster response Slower response

Localised response Widespread response
Short term response Long term response
Specific cells receive All cells receive
signal hormone, but only
Electrical impulses target cells are
and chemical affected.
neurotransmitters Chemicals
Neurons conduct Blood
impulses
Hormonal Response- pages 213-
214

Hormones work by altering the metabolism of

a target cell
Target cells have receptors for this specific
hormone
The hormone may alter an enzymes activity
or may turn on a gene
Eg. Testosterone, a steroid hormone
Produced in testes and transported in blood
Target cells - male sex organs, skin and muscle cells
Effect - bind to androgen receptors, modify gene
expression to alter development of cell
 Two types of hormone
1.Polypeptide hormones - bind with a
receptor in the cell membrane. This
activates a second messenger within the
cell (cAMP). cAMP activates enzymes or
transcription factors. Eg. Insulin, adrenalin.
2.Steroid hormones - diffuse across the
cell membrane and bind with a receptor in
the cytoplasm. This hormone receptor
complex acts as a transcription factor and
a gene is activated. Eg. Oestrogen,
testosterone.
 Coordination in plants
Plants do not have a nervous system.
They do coordinate activities and respond to
stimuli.
This occurs via plant growth substances
(hormones).
Tropisms are directional growth responses to
stimuli such as light and gravity.
Plants carry out phototropism and geotropism.
Some plants also carry out other tropisms
eg. Thigmotropism, hydrotropism
Tropisms
Phototropism is contolled by

the shoot tip

 Auxins
Synthesised in Can be used
actively growing commercially as
tissue meristems Rooting powders
Bind with receptors Weed killers
on the membranes Produce fruits
of cells without
Actives a secondary pollination
messenger
Changes gene
expression
 Coordination in plants
Read pages 214-215 and answer Q 8.18-8.20
using the diagram below.
Q8.5 Draw up a table that summarises the similarities and the differences between the action of hormones in animals
and growth substances in plants.
Similarities Differences

Both hormones and plant growth Hormones are produced by

substances are chemical _____________. _____________ _____________ whereas
plant growth substances are produced by
dividing cells (____________).

Some hormones and some plant growth
substances bring about long-term changes
through control of g______________ and
d_____________. (Other hormones and
plant growth substances bring about rapid
changes.)
Hormones are transported in the
_________________ whereas plant growth
substances move from cell to cell or in
________________.

Some hormones and some plant growth

substances affect ______________
expression, Other hormones and plant
growth substances have direct effects, for
example on e__________ or membrane
properties.