Indian Institute of Welding ANB

Refresher Course Module 11

Introduction to Wear
and Surfacing

1
 Contents

Types of wear and causes

Surfacing alloys
Reclamation Processes &
technology
Protective coatings
Spraying and Cladding

2
 Types Of Wear

Metal To Metal (Friction)

Metal To Particles (Abrasion)
Metal To Particles in Fluid (Erosion)
Impact Wear
Wear caused by heat
Corrosive Wear
Fatigue
Fretting Wear

3
 Mechanism of Frictional Wear

Frictional wear is caused by: -

The action of one material sliding over another with surface
interaction
and welding (adhesion) at localised contact areas.
Adhesive Wear are of 3 Types:-
Mild wear, Severe wear and Galling

4
 Wear by Adhesion

When machine force

Sliding metal Contact under heat and
fractures cold welded
components have tiny pressure causes the
asperities from one
raised or roughed areas, metal to flow and bond
surface remain boded to
called asperities, which momentarily in cold
the opposite surface,
collide welding
accelerating wear. 5
Alloys to resist Frictional Wear

Low co-efficient of friction

Sufficient structural strength to
resist distortion under load
Pearlitic, low carbon martensitic
steels mostly used, also austenitic
steels
Co & Ni based alloys have highest
resistance to frictional wear

6
 Rebuilding of Sprockets

Sprocket wear out is a

result of high
compressive friction
and cyclic loading.
Often fine particles get
entrapped between the
sliding surface and
aggravate
deterioration.
Hardfacing can enhance
life to a great extent
without endangering
the matching part.

7
 Abrasive Wear

Involves forced indentation of hard

particles across the surface which
exhibits scratches or grooves.
Abrasive wear accounts for 60% of
all wear.
Classified further as
Low Stress Scratching Abrasion
High Stress abrasion wear

8
Low stress scratching abrasion
Least severe form of abrasion as abrasive
particles do not fracture and are usually
small and not constrained.
The small particles slide freely over the
metal surface, scouring the surface as they
move across it at varying velocities.
Example is dry sand flowing over a part
such as, agricultural implements,
classifiers, or chutes.
Since there is no impact associated with
this type of wear, high hardness carbide
containing alloys, such as high carbon/high
chromium carbide, complex carbide,
tungsten and vanadium carbide are best for
this type of abrasion.
9
 Wear by Low-Stress Scratching
Abrasion

Sliding abrasive material gently Micro-schematic shows how a

scratches the surface gradually moving abrasive particle scratches
wearing it down out a tiny silver of the metal
10
Excavator bucket

Fabricated from wear

plate
The buckets undergo low
pressure abrasion
Teeth undergo erosion
and fine particle
scratching.
Bucket plate undergoes
some impact
Surface fissures
frequently appear on body
leading to total fractures.
Excessive wear of teeth
reduce efficiency.

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 Undercarriage components

Lead to huge losses due

to downtime
The wear pattern is non-
uniform and depends on
the mineral being
excavated and the design
of the components.
Downtime can be
brought down by up to
15% of the original value
by hardfacing.

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 High stress gouging abrasion

Abrasion combined with some degree of impact

and weight the resulting wear is called Gouging
Abrasion.
Gouging Abrasion occurs when large abrasive
objects, such as rocks, are forced under pressure
against a metal surface, leaving prominent
gouges and grooves.
Typical applications include:
Agricultural implements Conveyor screws, Augers,
Road rippers Bulldozer blades, Fan blades, Paving
screws, Coal feeder screws Cement chutes, Pug mill
paddles, Coal chutes, Pulverizers etc.

13
 Wear by Gouging Abrasion

The rocks weight impacts on metal Micro-schematic shows how heavy

with a low velocity force and cuts rock gouges or depresses the metal
into the metal surface surface. The furrow is result of the
plastic flow of the metal. 14
High stress gouging abrasion

The particles either may be present at the surface

of a second material or may exist as loose
particles between two surfaces.
Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass
by the ASTM G65 Abrasion Test .
Very high metal hardness reduces abrasive wear
Alloys chosen are Chromium Carbide (around
1500 Hv) irons or Tungsten carbide (around 2500
Hv) irons.
They are bonded in an austenitic iron matrix to
have some impact resistance along with
resistance to gouging abrasion.

15
 Wear by High-Stress Grinding
Abrasion

Two metal components squeeze Micro-schematic shows the

abrasive material between them fracturing of an abrasive particle
breaking down the original particle into smaller, sharp cornered pieces
size which cut furrows into both metal
surfaces 16
Drill Bit Wear protection system

Rock Drill bits are exposed to the

most aggressive wear form.
Its a complex wear system with
80% abrasion, 10% erosion and 8%
impact.
Abrasion is by fine and medium
particles.
The tips of the teeth needs
extensive protection offered only by
"preformed Tungsten Carbide" in
optimum size
proportion to ensure high density
deposit.
Proper hardfacing can reduce drill
bit consumption by 75%.

Tri-cone Rock Roller Bit

17
Coal Grinding,
Cement Grinding
Mill tables

Hardfaced with
high Cr-carbide
deposit, 60 HRc

18
 Erosive Wear

Erosion is wear caused by abrasive

particles usually contained in a fluid - by
agents of currents such as wind, water, or
ice by usually by downward movement in
response to gravity.
Eroded surfaces show typical channels
and waves Like those in sand moved by
wind or water.
Alloys required - with high matrix
hardness and a high particle dispersion

19
CI pump casings and impellers

The slurry handling

pump casings and
impellers degrade
fast.
The cast iron body is
affected by cavitation,
low angle erosion and
corrosion.
The impellers often
get grooved and the
surface becomes
irregular

20
 Impact Wear

Impact wear is caused by rapid, repeated

application of a compressive load, causing
the metal to deform (mushroom), fracture
or peel off in pieces (spalling), directly
below the point of impact.
Examples of impact applications include
railroad switch points and frogs, and rock
crushing equipment such as impact and
roll crushers, mill hammers and impact
breaker bars.

21
 Wear by Impact

Wear by impact observed on a chisel Similar mushrooming occurs on

where repeated hammer blows equipment such as rock crushing
gradually deform the chisel tip, finely hammers, except the projecting
cracking the edges and spreading edge can actually be knocked off by
them like the head of a mushroom. the impacting rock. 22
Alloys used: work-hardening
Austenitic steels
The alloys used are austenitic steels
which are usually soft as deposited (as-
deposited hardness 17-25 HRc)
Used as buffer or build-up alloys
Austenite is tough phase & therefore
these alloys have high toughness - makes
them impact resistant. These alloys
harden under work which means their
hardness increases in service under
impact.

23
 Wear Caused By Heat

Heat causes metal loss by Softening the

component, making it more susceptible to
abrasion and impact.
Softening can happen for hardened and
tempered steels if service temp. exceeds
tempering temp. in initial manufacture.
Exception is certain high alloy tool steel
having a secondary hardening effect.
All metals soften at high temp.

24
 Wear Caused By Heat

Co-base alloys have highest red hardness,

but as-deposited hardness is lower than tool
steels.
Ni-base alloys also have good red hardness
up to about 500 deg. C.
Co-base alloys are suitable to resist wear by
elevated temp. scaling or oxidation.
Applications: cutting edges, valve seats,
forging dies & parts subject to hot erosion &
oxidation.
25
Heat Treatment furnace
fixtures & bottom plate

Furnace fixtures,
guards, walls and
bottom plate are
subjected to cyclic
thermal loads.
Spalling damage costs
are enormous
They are reclaimed to
combat spalling and
oxidation.

26
 Wear By Corrosion

Corrosion is an electro chemical

reaction on metals by corrosive
substances.
Noble metals like Gold & Platinum
generally do not corrode.

27
 Wear by Liquid Corrosion

When water contacts steel, small electric cells are set up. The
acidified moisture attacks the steel surface, gradually changing
it to oxide.

28
 Wear By Corrosion

Stainless steels are good corrosion

resistant materials (formation of thin
film of oxide that act as a protective
barrier against corrosion)
Cobalt & Nickel base alloys are
suitable for corrosive wear. Typical
applications: Scrappers, feeders,
screws in Chemical & mining
industries

29
 Wear by Fatigue

Fatigue is progressive & localized

structural damage that occurs when
a material is subjected to cyclic
loading.
Maximum Fatigue stress is less than
Ultimate Tensile strength and can
be below the Yield Stress in may
steels

30
 Wear by Fretting

Repeated cyclical rubbing between two

surfaces, is known as fretting - over a
period of time removes material from one
or both surfaces in contact.
Fretting typically occurs in bearings,
although most bearings have their
surfaces hardened to resist the problem.
When cracks in either surface are created,
known as fretting fatigue.

31
 Wear mechanisms and
selection of alloys

In practice, industrial components

are subject to all these wear
conditions in varying degrees.
They are referred to as wear
mechanisms
The alloy we need to choose for
overlaying is the one that has the
optimum resistance to the wear
mechanisms present.

32
 Summary of Hardfacing &
Build-up Materials
These are broadly divided into 5
categories:
1. Hard and tough ferritic, ferritic-martensitic
and martensitic steels
2. Soft Austenitic steels which have work
hardening properties
3. Very hard Chromium and alloy-carbide irons
4. Cobalt base alloys and Ni-base alloys for
combination of heat and wear resistance
properties
5. Cu-base alloys are used for corrosion and
wear resistance properties

33
Weld Surfacing Alloy Groups &
General Characteristics
High Abrasion Resistance Low

Low Tungsten Martensitic Pearlitic Austenitic Low

Carbide Alloy Steel Alloy Steel Manganese
Group-1 Group-2 Group-3 Group-4

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Heat Corrosion
Chromium High Alloy Cr-Ni Stainless Resistance
Resistance Carbide Tool Steel steel
Irons
Group-6 Group-7
High Cobalt and Nickel Alloys
Base High
Group-9

Impact Resistance
Low High

34
 Hard & tough ferritic &
martensitic steels
These alloys can also be further
classified as
Cr-Mo steels
Cr-Mo-V-W tool steels

12%Cr steels

Other special alloys newly developed

Their hardness varies from 30-60

HRc with their carbon & alloy content

35
 Idlers

Rebuilt using 0.2 C - 2.5

Cr - 2.5 Mn tough Ferritic
alloy of hardness 38-42
HRc using submerged
arc welding with tubular
flux cored wires and
neutral flux

36
 Tractor Rollers

Rebuilt using 0.10C-

1.5Cr-1.5Mn tough
Ferritic alloy of hardness
35 HRc using
submerged arc welding
with tubular flux cored
wires and neutral flux
The rollers are cooled
internally during welding

37
 Cladding cast iron valves

Cladding valves
with 12%Cr steel
overlay (SS 410)

38
 Typical austenitic work-hardening
build up materials

Alloy 14Mn-2Ni 14Cr-14Mn 18Cr-8Ni-5Mn

Composition Bal Fe Bal Fe Bal Fe

As welded 17-25 HRc 20-25HRc 17-20HRc

hardness
Work hardens 45 HRc 45HRc 40-45HRc
to
Impact ***** ***** *****
resistance
Abrasion ** ** *
resistance
Corrosion * **** *****
resistance

39
Railway points and Crossings

cast manganese steel

rail points and crossings
are regularly being hard
faced, using austenitic
Manganese steel
electrodes.
Suitable for high traffic
density under
classification of Indian
Railways.

40
Gyratory crusher clad with
14Cr-14Mn steel overlay

41
 Special alloys & recent
developments
C-Cr-Mo and C-Cr-Mo-V-W tool steels
have been used for hardfacing roller press
rolls for two decades.
A significant recent development is that of
C-Cr-Nb-Ti alloy steel that effectively
combines the advantage of hard Cr-Nb
carbide dispersion with a very tough
ferritic-martensitic matrix to provide
crack-free and long-lasting deposit.

42
Alloy Comparison
Weld metal hardness

43
Alloy Comparison
Weight Loss

44
 Crack-free Iron-base hardfacing
alloys

The martensitic alloy 1 C- 6 Cr -7 Nb

alloy is further improved to 1 C 9
Cr 2 Mo -7 Nb -1.5 Ti to produce
better results.
These depositions, require high
preheats 300 deg. C, but have wear
resistance and hardness similar to
hyper-eutectic Fe-Cr-alloys, namely
Cr- Carbide irons
45
 Crack-free Iron base
hardfacing alloys

Chevrons
welded on
roller press
rolls used in
cement
industry with
this alloy

46
Very hard Chromium carbide irons

These are irons and not steels. They are

characterized by their high amounts of
carbon content typically above 3%.
The chromium in the weld metal forms
needle like carbides since high amounts of
carbon are available in the weld metal.
These carbides are very hard, and when
uniformly distributed in the matrix can
provide high hardness and therefore high
abrasion resistance to the weld deposit.
Typically, these carbide irons have
hardness of 60 HRc and above.

47
 How Carbides Prolong Life?

As carbides are
undermined and
knocked out by moving
abrasive particles,
additional carbides are
exposed which further
resist abrasives and
delay wear as shown
below

48
 Very hard Chromium & alloy-
carbide irons.

Chromium carbide irons provide high abrasion

up to service temperatures of 300 deg. C.
However, they do not retain their hardness at
high temperatures, such as those encountered
in blast furnace chutes, slag grinding, and
ingot lifting tongs.
The high temperature hardness of these
carbide irons is improved by alloying them
with Niobium, Molybdenum, Vanadium,
Tungsten or Cobalt. By varying the degree of
alloying, filler materials are developed to suit
applications at different service temperatures.

49
Relative wear rate of carbide irons

50
 Surfacing Processes

Gas Welding
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding Process
Thermal Spraying
Plasma Arc Spraying
Cladding

51
 Surfacing processes

Oxy Acetylene (Gas)

usually confined to hard-facing small components,
enables operator close control of deposit shape and
thickness
Dilution of deposit negligible- important for
corrosion resistance
Low Thermal Shock
Manual Arc
Widest Use, Normal Equipment, Easy to apply, Low
Cost
Positional Welding possible
Disadvantage for thin metals, Small intricate
shapes, thin edges etc.

52
 Surfacing Processes

Submerged Arc Welding

High deposition rates
Alloying can be done from both wire & flux
Suitable for both build up and hardfacing
Excellent weld appearance, less spatter, easy
slag removal
Improved working conditions
Flux Cored Arc Welding
Used extensively for surfacing and build up for
overall productivity & economy
Wide variety of consumables available, flux and
gas not normally required
Excellent weld appearance

53
Automatic Hard-facing of Cement
Plant Roller Press

54
Bronze component welding

A regular job of
transport repair shops
is welding brass,
bronze components
and other copper
alloys.
Can be reclaimed
using suitable
consumables ensuring
high success rate and
minimum scrap.

55
 Welding process selection

Base Metal Composition:

High heat input such as gas welding are unsuitable for
austenitic manganese steel deposits, which require low
heat input.
Size & Shape of Component to be hard-faced
GMAW or MMAW are not usually economical for
surfacing large areas.
Accessibility
It may not be possible to use heavy automatic
equipment.
For heavy rebuilding high deposition processes are used
No. of Components
Automatic Process most suitable for large number of
similar items to be hardfaced

56
 Surface Preparation

Surface Condition
Removal of cracks by gouging / grinding
Rough machining
Cleaning to free from rust & scale by brushing/
grinding/ solvent cleaning
Job Positioning
Job to be preferably positioned in down-hand position
For positional welding, process and consumables
suitably chosen
Preheating is often required to
Prevent cracking in hardenable alloys
Prevent cracking of large areas of very hard deposits
To minimize distortion

57
 Control of Distortion

Distortion is primarily caused by

imbalanced stresses during
heating/cooling
Can be controlled by
Pre-forming flat sections & other thinly
formed parts.
Bending, forming or clamping the part
with proper preset before welding.

58
 Control of Distortion

Counterbalancing
stresses:
Weld or clamp 2
similar parts back to
back & alternate
welding from one
part to another OR
weld or clamp to a
strong-back, fixture
& plate

59
 Control of Dilution

Dilution in hardfacing means extent of admixture of base

Metal & deposit metal. Single layer applications most
susceptible to dilution- effect progressively reduced for multi
layer deposit.
Controlled by:-
Using slower welding speeds and lower welding current
as possible
Using welding technique to direct arc on molten metal
Selecting proper welding polarity-DC+ gives maximum
dilution, AC intermediate and DC- lowest
Gas rod hardfacing and powder spray process give
lowest dilution

60
 Use of Buffer Layers

Buffer Layer is an intermediate deposit

layer between base metal and actual
hardfacing weld metal.
Used when hardfacing on soft material for
high load service to prevent spalling off of
hard material due to sink in of the soft
base
In components subject to heavy impact or
flexing buffer layer prevents crack
propagation
Helps during reclaiming partially worn out
components

61
 Roller press surfacing
(cement plant)
Surface of roller press comes
under heavy compressive
loading cycles with micro-fine
particles trying to score the
surface under this pressure.
Ordinary high hardness
carbides cannot withstand this
pressure and comes out in
chunks (shelling off). This
shelling off takes place
preferentially from relief cracks
formed during hard surfacing.
This can be reclaimed by first
depositing a buffer layer
Then micro-carbide type flux
cored wire, where the deposit
is crack free even after
reaching 800 HV (= 62 RC)
hardness is used

62
Wear Plate Technology

The most modern technology is

used to manufacture our unique
and ready to use Wear Plate
Consists of a Steel Plate, on
which a wear-facing layer is laid
down either by welding or
metallic powder coating.
Offers superb protection against
erosion and abrasion therefore
providing the user with cost
saving solutions where large
wear problems occur.
It can be cut, reformed, and
welded to specific needs.

The advantages:
wear service life
cost savings
minimum downtime
efficiency

63
Indian Institute of Welding-ANB
Refresher Course-Module

Thermal Spraying

Known previously as Flame Spray, Metallizing, and Metal

Spray Processes

64
 Comparison of Thermal Spraying Processes
& Coating Characteristics

Particle Typical deposit

velocity Adhesion Oxide content Porosity Deposition rate thickness
m.s -1 MPa % % kg.hr -1 mm

Flame 40 <8 10-15 10-15 1-10 0.2-10

Arc 100 10-30 10-20 5-10 6-60 0.2-10

Plasma 200-300 20-70 1-3 5-10 1-5 0.2-2

HVOF 600- >70 1-2 1-2 1-5 0.2-2

1000

65
 Flame Spray process

Sprays molten metal* onto a surface to provide a

coating.
Material in wire form is melted in a flame (oxy-
acetylene flame most common) and atomized
using compressed air to form a fine spray.
Fine molten droplets rapidly solidify forming a
coating on the substrate.
It is a "cold process" as the substrate temperature
can be kept low during processing avoiding
damage, metallurgical changes and distortion to
the substrate material.
Extensively used for machine element work and
anti-corrosive coatings.

* Ceramics and cermets can be used in rod or

composite wire form.
66
 Flame Spray Process
Common Materials Sprayed:
Zinc and aluminium for anti-
corrosion cathodic coatings on steel
Nickel/aluminium composite wire
for bond coats and self-bonding
coatings
Molybdenum for bond coats
Molybdenum for hard bearing
applications, excellent resistance to
adhesive wear, used on piston rings,
syncromesh cones and journals.
High Chromium steel for many
applications requiring hard and
wear resistant coating
Bronzes, babbitt for bearing
applications
Stainless steels, nickel and monel
for anti-corrosion and wear
Aluminium, nickel/aluminium for
heat and oxidation resistance
Process Advantages:
Low capital investment
Simple to operate
Wire form cheaper than powder
Deposit efficiency very high
Possibly still best for applying pure
molybdenum coatings for wear
resistance.
Portable system
Preheating facility built in, unlike arc
spraying
Possible to use system in areas
without electricity supply
Process Disadvantages:
Limited to spraying materials
supplied in wire or rod form
Not capable of the low oxide, high
density and high strength coatings of
plasma and HVOF
67
Glass mould repair by hot metal
spray powders

Over the years alloys have

been developed to
rejuvenate glass moulds and
others components by
thermal spraying.
Powder products include
nickel-base ranges, cobalt-
base ranges, ferrous and
non-ferrous powders for
flame spray, plasma spray,
PTA surfacing and HVOF
spray.

68
 Plasma Spray Process

Material in form of powder is injected

into very high temperature plasma
flame, where it is rapidly heated and
accelerated to a high velocity.
The hot material impacts on the
substrate surface and rapidly cools
forming a coating.
Plasma spray gun comprises a copper
anode and tungsten cathode, both are
water cooled. Plasma gas (argon,
nitrogen, hydrogen, helium) flows
around the cathode & through the
anode which is shaped as a constricting
nozzle.
69
 Cladding
What is Cladding?
Cladding is a method of joining Two or more metals or alloys by a
roll-bonding and thermal treatment process OR BY Laser that
produces a bond at the atomic level.
Basic cladding has been around for centuries. It originally served as
a way to bond decorative gold or silver surfaces onto base metals.
Most famous example of an early clad metal product is the
Damascus sword crafted from layers of steel and valued for its
ability to take and keep an edge
Why Clad?
A single metal can not be designed to exhibit all desired properties.
Cold-rolled cladding of metals makes it possible to put disparate
metals together in a way that opens the doors of design to an
exciting new world of possibilities.
Cladding not only allows you to expand your design possibilities,
but also can provide significant improvements in product
performance and manufacturability.
And may even yield meaningful reductions in product costs as well.

70
 Laser cladding

Laser cladding is the innovative technology for the application of metallic

coatings. An additional material is "cladded" to the work item using a
powerful diode laser.
This coating technique sets new standards for adhesion, layer
thicknesses and fields of application
The possibility of applying diverse materials provides a wide field of
application for laser cladding, such as:
Repair of axle and drilling damage
Application of hard-wearing coatings
Application of corrosive-resistant coatings
Finishing work after cladding brings each
work piece back to the original measurements
or tolerance.
Dimensions of up to a diameter of
500 x 2000 mm (in the sack diameter 1100 mm).

71
Advantages of Laser Cladding

100% metallic adhesion; no chance of coating coming loose

Both simple and special, high-quality coatings are available
Very local application
Small total heat contribution; no deformation
Contact-free; no forces are exerted on the work item
Process depth is well defined
Environmentally friendly process
Superior properties:
No porosity
Homogeneous distribution of the elements
Excellent control of the layer thickness
Controlled minimum mixing

72
 Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

Mr.Soumya Sarkar
Mr.R.Banerjee
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.Shaju Albert

73
 Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

Mr.P.K.Das
Mr.A.A.Deshpande
Dr.D.K.Sharma
Mr.R.Ravi

74
THANK YOU

75