AE 1005-AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES

Unit 1

Presented by
M.Palanivendhan
Assistant Professor
UNIT I - ENGINE CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATION (9 hours)

Four stroke SI and CI engines - Working

principle function, materials, constructional
details of engine components- Valve timing
diagram - Firing order and its significance -
relative merits and demerits of SI and CI
engines Two stroke engine construction and
operation. Comparison of four-stroke and
two-stroke engine operation.
 Engine Classifications
1. Types of ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI)
An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug.
(b) Compression Ignition (CI)
The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to
high temperature in the
combustion chamber caused by high compression.

2. Engine cycle
(a) Four-stroke cycle
A four-stroke cycle has four piston movements over two engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-stroke cycle:
A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for each cycle.

3. Valve location
(a) Valves in head (Overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine.
Some historic engines with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder
and the exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
(c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head Engine; this is
much less common.
4. Basic Design
a. Reciprocating
. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth.
b. Rotary
. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and crankshaft. The
combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block

5. Position and number of cylinders of reciprocating engines

a. Single Cylinder
. Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft.
b. In-Line
. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along the length of the crankshaft.
c. V Engine
. Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single crankshaft, allowing for a shorter engine
block. The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15 to 120 with 60-90.
d. Opposed Cylinder Engine:
. Two banks of cylinders opposite to each other on a single crankshaft (a V engine with 180 deg V). These
are common on small aircraft and some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or
more.
e. W engine:
Engines of two different cylinder arrangements have been classified as W engines . They are not common,
but some race cars of 1930 s and some luxury cars of the
1990s had such engines either with 12 cylinders or 18 cylinders. Another type of W engine is the
modern 16 cylinder engine made for the Bugatti automobile (W16).
f. Opposed piston engine
. Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the center between the pistons.
. g. Radial engine:
. Engines with pistons positioned in a circular plane around a circular crankshaft
6. Air Intake Process
(a) Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boosts system.
(b) Super charged: Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off
of the engine crankshaft.
(c) Turbo charged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine compressor
driven by the engine exhaust gases.
(d) Crankcase compressed

7. Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines

(a) Carbureted: A device for mixing air and fuel to facilitate the combustion
process
(b) Multipoint port fuel injection: One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle body fuel injection: Injectors upstream in intake manifold.
(d) Gasoline direct injection: Injectors mounted in combustion chambers with
injection directly into cylinders.

8. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines

(a) Direct injection: Fuel injected into main combustion chamber.
(b) Indirect injection: Fuel injected into secondary combustion chamber.
(c) Homogeneous charge compression ignition: Some fuel added during intake
stroke.
9. Fuel used
(a) Gasoline
(b) Diesel oil or Fuel oil
(c) Gas, Natural gas, Methane
(d) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl
(e) Dual fuel: There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or
more fuels. Some, Usually large, CI engines use a combination of natural
gas and diesel fuel. These are attractive in developing third world countries
because of the high cost of the diesel fuel. Combined gasoline alcohol fuels
are becoming more common as an alternative to straight gasoline
automobile engine fuel.
(f) Gasohol: Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.

10. Application
(a) Automobile, Locomotive, Stationery, Marine, Aircraft, Small, Portable,
chain saw, model airplane.

11. Type of cooling

(a) Air cooled
(b) Liquid cooled, Water-cooled.
Types of Reciprocating
Engines
V Engine
Wankel Rotary Piston
Engine
Types of Rotary Engines
Wankel Engine Parts
Apex Seals
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES

3. Operating Cycle

Otto (For the Conventional SI

Engine)
Atkinson (For Complete Expansion SI
Engine)
Miller (For Early or Late Inlet Valve
Closing type SI Engine)
Diesel (For the Ideal Diesel Engine)
Dual (For the Actual Diesel Engine)
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES

4. Working Cycle (Strokes)

1. Four Stroke Cycle:(a) Naturally Aspirated

(b)Supercharged/Turbocharged
2. Two Stroke Cycle: (a) Crankcase
Scavenged
(b) Uniflow Scavenged
(i) Inlet valve/Exhaust Port
(ii) Inlet Port/Exhaust Valve
(iii) Inlet and Exhaust Valve
May be Naturally
Aspirated
Turbocharged
Four Stroke & Two stroke SI
Engines
Four Stroke & Two Stroke CI
Engines
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
5. (a) Valve/Port Design
1. Poppet Valve
2. Rotary Valve
3. Reed Valve
4. Piston Controlled Porting
5. (b) Valve Location
1. The T-head
2. The L-head
3. The F-head
4. The I-head: (i) Over head Valve (OHV)
(ii) Over head Cam (OHC)
Valve Locations
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
6. Fuel
1.Conventional: (a) Crude oil derived (i) Petrol
(ii) Diesel
(b) Other sources: (i) Coal
(ii) Wood (includes bio-mass)
(iii)Tar Sands
(iv)Shale
2. Alternate: (a) Petroleum derived (i) CNG
(ii) LPG
(b) Bio-mass Derived (i) Alcohols (methyl and
ethyl)
(ii) Vegetable oils
(iii) Producer gas and biogas
(iv) Hydrogen
3. Blending
4. Dual fueling
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
7. Mixture Preparation
1. Carburetion
2. Fuel Injection (i) Diesel
(ii) Gasoline
(a) Manifold
(b) Port
(c) Cylinder
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
8. Ignition
1. Spark Ignition
(a) Conventional
(i) Battery
(ii) Magneto
(b) Other methods
2. Compression Ignition
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
9. Charge Stratification

1. Homogeneous Charge (Also Pre-

mixed charge)

2. Stratified Charge (i) With

carburetion
(ii) With fuel injection
Charge Stratification
Combustion Chamber
Designs
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
10. Combustion Chamber Design
1. Open Chamber: (i) Disc type
(ii) Wedge
(iii) Hemispherical
(iv) Bowl-in-piston
(v) Other design
2. Divided Chamber: (For CI): (i) Swirl
chamber
(ii) Pre-chamber
(For SI) (i) CVCC
(ii) Other designs
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
11. Method of Load Control
1. Throttling: (To keep mixture
strength constant) Also called
Charge Control
Used in the Carbureted S.I. Engine
2. Fuel Control (To vary the mixture
strength according to load)
Used in the C.I. Engine
3. Combination
Used in the Fuel-injected S.I. Engine.
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINES
12. Cooling

1. Direct Air-cooling

2. Indirect Air-cooling (Liquid

Cooling)

3. Low Heat Rejection (Semi-

adiabatic) engine.
COMPONENTS OF A FOUR STROKE
CYCLE, DOHC PISTON ENGINE
OPERATION OF A FOUR STROKE ENGINE
COMPONENTS OF A FOUR CYLINDER ENGI
Engine layouts
V Engine Crankshaft,
Connecting Rod and Piston
assembly
Radial Engine
A Fully Assembled Engine
Dismantled Engine
CYLINDER BLOCK
CYLINDER BLOCK
 Cylinder block
Thecylinder blockorengine blockis a
machined casting containing
cylindrically bored holes for the
pistonsof a multi-cylinder
reciprocatinginternal combustion
engine. It is a complex part at the heart
of an engine, with adaptions to attach
thecylinder head,crankcase, engine
Engine blocks
mounts, are usually
drive housing andmade
engine
fromcast ironor,
ancillaries, in modern
with passages
engines,aluminiumandmagnesium
forcoolantsandlubricants.
CRANK CASE
Crankcaseis the housing for thecrankshaft.
The enclosure forms the largest cavity in the
engine and is located below thecylinder block.
It protects the crankshaft andconnecting
rodsfrom foreign objects.
In afour-strokeengine, the crankcase is filled
mainly with air and oil, and is sealed off from the
fuel/air mixture by the pistons.
Intwo-strokegasolineengines, the crankcase is
sealed and is used as a pressurization chamber for
the fuel/air mixture. As the piston rises, it pushes
out exhaust gases and produces a
partialvacuumin the crankcase which aspirates
fuel and air. As the piston travels downward, the
fuel/air charge is pushed from the crankcase and
into the cylinder.
CYLINDER HEAD
OIL PAN
CRANKSHAFT
 Crankshaft is the main rotating shaft running
the length of the engine.
The crankshaft is supported byMain
bearings.
Portions of the shaft are offset to form
throws to which theConnecting rodsare
attached.
As thePistonsmove up and down,
theConnecting rodsmove the crankshaft
around.
The turning motion of the crankshaft is
transmitted to theTransmissionand
eventually to the driving wheels.
PISTON
 Pistons

Constructed of aluminum
alloy
Parts include top, ring
grooves, ring lands, skirt,
and piston pin boss
Cooling fins on the bottom
help the oil carry heat
away from the piston top
Piston must be made of a material that meets the
following requirements :
Low Thermal expansion. The coefficient of thermal
expansion must be low. It is best to use the same
material for both pistons and cylinders.
High heat conductivity.
Low specific gravity (to decrease inertia
duringhigh speedoperation).
Sufficient strength and large abrasion resistance
even at high temperatures.
Easy to cast
 Alumunium alloys is currently used because they
satisfy all of the above requirements. Specialcast
ironis used as well.
A piston made of specialcast ironhas the same
coefficient of thermal expansion as the cylinder, but
tends to be heavy.
Alumunium alloys has a larger coefficient of thermal
expansion than iron, but has high heat conductivity,
therefore the temperature of the piston head can
be lowered.
However, alumunium alloy has a weak point (poor
lubricating oil retention). For this reason, pistons
are usually plated with lead to eliminate this
shortcoming.
Seizure can be prevented by lead plating.
Some pistons have a specialcast ironring carrier
 Thermal Problem of Pistons

The strength and hardness of the alumunium alloy used for

manufacturing pistons will suddenly decrease when temperature
exceeds 400oC. As a result, abrasion and cracking will begin to
occur. When Lo-Ex alloy is used, the piston head cavity temperature
is designed to be 300 - 330oC and the bottom of the top of ring
groove is designed to below 230 - 250oC.

The overheating of piston can be prevented by various methods. For

example the cooling efficiency can be raised to lower the temperature
of the cylinder liner. The thermal flow type shape (dome shape that
promotes the flow of heat from the top of the piston to the ring) can be
adopted for the back of pistons so that the piston temperature will be
even. Pistons can also be oil cooled.
 Clearance between piston and cylinder

When the piston is installed in the cylinder, there must be a

specified clearance between them. Insufficient clearance will
cause seizure due to thermal expansion, while excessive
clearance will lead to compression leakage, inefficient heat
radiation by the piston, over-consumption of lubricating oil, and
piston slap.
 Measurement of piston dimensions

A piston is designed to maintain an even clearance with

the cylinder during operation when thermal expansion
is taken into consideration. Therefore the dimensions of
the piston in the cold stage are supposed to be smaller
than in the operating state by the amount of thermal
expansion that takes place. The upper part of the
piston is heated more than the lower part. Therefore its
diameter is the smallest and the top and increases
toward the bottom. In other words, a piston has conical
shape.
 Ovality

Since heat is transmitted through the ribs that connect the bosses of
the piston head and the piston pin, the ribs and bosses are heated
more than the other parts. This mean that the expansion in the axial
direction of the piston is larger. Therefore the diameter in the pin
direction is smaller than the diameter in the perpendicular direction.
(this called Ovality)
Acast ironpiston is exactly round.
PARTS OF A PISTON
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PISTON
Piston ring
 Piston ring
Apiston ringis an open-ended ring that fits into
a groove on the outer diameter of apistonin
areciprocating
The engine of piston rings in
three main functions
engines are:
1. Sealing the combustion/expansion chamber.
2. Supporting heat transfer from the piston to
Mosttheautomotive
cylinder wall.
pistons have three rings: The
3.
topRegulating
two while engine oil consumption.
also controlling oil are primarily
for compression sealing (compression rings);
the lower ring is for controlling the supply of oil
to the liner which lubricates the piston skirt and
the
Typically,
compression
top ring
rings
and (oil
oil control
control rings
rings).
will be
coated withChromium, orNitrided, possibly
plasma sprayedor have a PVD (physical vapour
deposit) ceramic coating. For enhanced scuff
resistance and further improved wear, most
FITTING A PISTON RING
RING TYPES
 PISTON PIN

Gudgeonpin orwrist pin is that which connects

thepistonto the connecting rod and provides a
bearing for the connecting rod topivotupon as
the piston moves
The gudgeon pin is typically aforgedshort
hollow rod made of asteelalloy of high
strength andhardness
Piston pin can be classified into the full floating type and the
half floating type, depending on the mounting method. The full
floating type is ordinarily used on diesel engine.
 Circlip

Acirclip(a combination of 'circle' and 'clip),

orsnap ringis a type offastenerconsisting of a
semi-flexible metal ring with open ends which
can be snapped into place, into
amachinedgrooveon a dowel pin or other part
to permitrotationbut to prevent
CONNECTING ROD
 CONNECTING ROD
In a reciprocatingpiston engine,
theconnecting rodconnects thepistonto
thecrankshaft. Together with the crank, they
form a simple mechanism that converts linear
motion into rotating motion.
CAMSHAFT
 CAMSHAFT
The camshaft is used to operatepoppet valves.
It then consists of a cylindrical rod running the
length of thecylinder bankwith a number of
oblonglobesprotruding from it, one for each
valve. The cams force the valves open by
pressing on the valve,this
or on
is some intermediate
Chilled iron castings: a good choice for
mechanism
high volumeasproduction.
they rotate.A chilled iron
camshaft has a resistance against wear
because the camshaft lobes have been chilled,
generally making
Billet Steel: Whenthem harder.
a high quality camshaft is
required, engine builders and camshaft
manufacturers choose to make the camshaft
from steel billet. This method is also used for
low volume production. This is a much more
time consuming process, and is generally
more expensive than other methods. However
CAMSHAFT
DOHC
CAM LOBE
CAMSHAFT LOBE DIAGRAM
 Rocker
arm

Rocker arm is a reciprocating lever that conveys

radial movement from thecamlobe into linear
movement at thepoppet valveto open it.
 Valves

Four-strokeIC engines employ valves to

control the flow of fuel and air into the
combustion chamber and exhaust gases out
of the cylinder.
Two-strokeengines use ports in the cylinder
bore, covered and uncovered by the piston.
However, special types of valves are used.
 Poppet valves
Poppet valvesare the most common and
get their name from the popping open and
close during operation.
Intake valves are chrome steel and are
cooled by the incoming air and fuel mixture.
Exhaust valves are also alloy steel but are
often filled with metallic sodium for cooling.
Valve faces may be coated with Stellite to
reduce wear and corrosion.
Stellitealloy is a range ofcobalt-chromium
alloy designed forwearresistance. It may
also contain tungstenormolybdenumand a
small but important amount ofcarbon.
Why exhaust valves are small?
The exhaust valves open against pressure
within the cylinder at the end of the working
stroke where the pressure is considerably
higher.
Further more, the pressure of the exhaust
gases assists, once the valve is open, in
expelling the gasses through the open valve.
Because of this consideration it is usual to
find that exhaust valves are designed to be
of a smaller diameter than the inlet valves.
Being smaller also assists with keeping them
cool which is important as exhaust valves
 Valve Rotation
Both the inlet and exhaust valve seats
get damaged during the operation and
from time to time they have to be
reconditioned by grinding-in the valves.
This is required often for the exhaust
valves because they operate at higher
temperatures and the exhaust gases
contain carbon particles which get
trapped under the valve seat and cause
pitting. The life of an exhaust valve
between reconditioning can be extended
FOUR STROKE ENGINE
 FOUR STROKE ENGINE

The four stroke engine was first

demonstrated by Nikolaus Otto in
1876, hence the cycle of operation
is called as the Otto cycle
The technically correct term is
Four Stroke (Cycle) Engine
The four stroke engine is the most
common type of engine used
nowadays
It powers almost all 2 wheelers,
cars and trucks
The four strokes of the cycle are
1. Intake or Inlet
2. Compression
3. Power or Expansion
4. Exhaust
Each corresponds to one full
stroke of the piston, therefore
the complete cycle requires
two revolutions of the
Four Stroke Engine
Actual Otto Cycle
Ideal and Actual Valve Timing Diagram
(4S SI Engine)
Ideal Diesel Cycle
Actual Diesel Cycle
Actual Valve Timing Diagram
(4S CI Engine)
Operation Single
Cylinder
Operation Multi Cylinder
Four Stroke Petrol Engine
 IntakeStroke
Air-fuel mixture or Air is introduced to fill the
combustion chamber.
Piston moves from TDC to BDC and the
intake valve is open.
The movement of the piston toward BDC
creates a low pressure in the cylinder.
Ambient atmospheric pressure forces the air-
fuel mixture or air through the open intake
valve into the cylinder to fill the low pressure
area created by the piston movement.
 IntakeStroke
The cylinder continues to fill slightly after
BDC also as the air-fuel mixture continues to
flow by its own inertia while the piston
begins to change direction.
The intake valve remains open a few
degrees of crankshaft rotation after BDC.
Depending on engine design. The intake
valve then closes and the air-fuel mixture or
air is sealed inside the cylinder.
 CompressionStroke
Trapped air-fuel mixture (called as charge) is
compressed inside the cylinder.
Compressionis the process of reducing or
squeezing a charge from a large volume to a
smaller volume in the combustion chamber.
Compressing the air-fuel mixture allows more
energy to be released when the charge is
ignited.
Intake and exhaust valves remain closed to
ensure that the cylinder is sealed to provide
compression.
The flywheel helps to maintain the
momentum necessary to compress the
 IGNITION - SI
The spark plug initiates combustion at
approximately 20 of crankshaft rotation
before TDC by a spark.
Thecombustion starts when the charge gets
ignited.
Combustionis the rapid chemical reaction in
which a fuel chemically combines with
oxygen in the mixture and releases energy
in the form of heat.
During combustion a flame spreads
throughout the combustion chamber by a
progressing flame front.

 Fuel Injection - CI
With both the inlet and the exhaust valves
closed and the piston about 23 deg BTDC
diesel is injected into the dense and heated
air as a high-pressure spray of fine particles.
Proper atomization and distribution of fuel
throughout the air charge gets heated by the
hot compressed air and quickly vaporizes and
ignites the tiny droplets of fuel.
By this time, the piston reaches TDC and
extensive burning releases heat energy which
is rapidly converted into pressure energy.
Expansion pushes the piston away from the
cylinder head.
 PowerStroke
Thepower strokeis the Stroke during which
the hot expanding gases force the piston
towards the BDC
Piston force and subsequent motion are
transferred through the connecting rod to
apply torque to the crankshaft.
The torque applied initiates crankshaft
rotation.
The amount of torque produced is
determined by the pressure on the piston,
the size of the piston, and the throw of the
engine.
 ExhaustStroke
Theexhaust strokeoccurs when the burnt
gases are expelled from the combustion
chamber to the atmosphere.
Piston reaches BDC during the end of power
stroke the cylinder is filled with exhaust
gases, the exhaust valve opens, and inertia
of the flywheel and other moving parts push
the piston back to TDC, forcing the exhaust
gases out through the open exhaust valve.
At the end of the exhaust stroke, the piston
is at TDC and one operating cycle has been
completed.
FIRING ORDER
 CYLINDER NUMBERING
Front of the engine is the part where
thepulleysfor the accessories
(alternatorand water pump) are, and rear of
the engine is where theflywheel, through
which the engine connects to
thetransmission.
The front of the engine may point towards
the front, side or rear of the car.
In mostrear-wheel drivecars, the engine
islongitudinally mountedand the front of the
engine also points to the front of the car.
Infront-wheel drivecars with atransverse
 CYLINDER NUMBERING
In front-wheel-drive cars withlongitudinally
mountedengines, most often the front of the
engine will point towards the front of the car,
but some manufacturers
(Saab,Citron,Renault) have at times placed
the engine 'backwards', with #1 towards the
firewall.
LINDER NUMBERING V ENGIN
In aV engine, cylinder numbering varies
among manufacturers.
Generally, the most forward cylinder is
numbered 1
Some manufacturers continue numbering
along that bank first, so that one side of the
engine would be 1-2-3-4, and the opposite
bank would be 5-6-7-8.
Others will number the cylinders from front
to back along the crankshaft, so one bank
would be 1-3-5-7 and the other bank would
 FIRING ORDER
Thefiring orderis the sequence of
power delivery of each cylinder in a
multi-cylinderreciprocating engine.
This is achieved by spark plugssparking in a
SI engine in the correct order, or by the
sequence of fuel injection in aCI engine.
Choosing an appropriate firing order is critical
to
Minimise vibration
To improveengine balance
Achieve smooth running
Long enginefatiguelife

 FIRING ORDER
1-3-2 3 Cylinder Engine
1-3-4-2 Most Common Four Cylinder Engine
1-5-3-7-4-8-2-6 V8 Ferrari
1-6-5-10-2-7-3-8-4-9 V10
TWO STROKE ENGINE
The second type of Internal Combustion
Engine operates on the Two Stroke Cycle
This engine was invented by Dugald Clerk
(1854-1932), a British Engineer in the year
1880
Two stroke engine have no valves
They dont have camshaft, cams, springs
and other valve train elements
Two stroke engine Operation
 TWO STROKE ENGINE

The two stroke engine employs the crankcase as well

as the cylinder to achieve all the elements of the Otto
cycle in only two strokes of the piston.
Intake

The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into the

crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston.The illustrated
engine features a poppet intake valve,
however many engines use a rotary valve
incorporated into the crankshaft.
During the downward stroke the poppet
valve is closed by the increased crankcase
pressure. The fuel mixture is then
compressed in the crankcase during the
remainder of the stroke.
Transfer/Exhaust

Toward the end of the stroke, the piston exposes

the intake port, allowing the compressed fuel/air
mixture in the crankcase to escape around the
piston into the main cylinder.This expels the
exhaust gasses out the exhaust port, usually
located on the opposite side of the
cylinder.Some of the fresh mixture is also
Compression

The piston then rises, driven by flywheel

momentum, and compresses the fuel
mixture. (At the same time, another intake
process is happening beneath the piston)
Power

At the top of the stroke the spark plug

ignites the fuel mixture. The burning fuel
expands, driving the piston downward, to
complete the cycle.
 Since the two stroke engine fires on every
revolution of the crankshaft, they are more
powerful than a four stroke engine of
equivalent size.
This, coupled with their lighter, simpler
construction, makes them popular in light
motorcycles, chainsaws, line trimmers,
outboard motors, snowmobiles, and model
airplanes.
Unfortunately, two stroke engines are
inefficient and pollutes heavily due to the
amount of unburnt fuel that escapes
through the exhaust port.