Strength of Materials

Chapter 2 : STRAIN

1
 WHAT IS STRAIN ??
Define concept of normal
strain
Define concept of shear
strain
Determine normal and
shear strain in
engineering applications

2
Concepts of STRENGTH and FAILURE
What do we really mean by STRENGTH?
Resistance to
Failure
What do we mean by FAILURE?
Condition preventing device from performing the
intended task
Mechanical devices are subject to a variety of Failure Modes:
a material begins to deform plastically

Gross Deformation Yield Rupture

Plastic Flow Creep Fatigue Fracture

materials that are subjected to heat for long

(an issue for
periods, and near melting point
brittle materials)
material is subjected to repeated loading
and unloading
3
Concepts of STRENGTH and FAILURE
We will focus on two failure issues:

1) Limiting Loads/Stress Will an upper limit of stress be

reached in the material of arm ABC?

2) Limiting Deformations/Strain
Will the arm ABC deform beyond acceptable levels?
i.e. failure caused by the engine contacting the lower legs.
4
Loads to Failure (Important Vocabulary)
For design and analysis of load carrying devices, it is useful
to consider the relationships between applied loads, material
properties, deformation, and possible failure.

5
Loads to Failure (Important Vocabulary)

APPLIED LOAD
Load Carrying
(External Forces
System
& Reactions)
Normal Forces
Internal Shear Forces
Forces Bending Moments
Twisting Moments

MATERI Stresses
AL & Strains

PROPE
RTIES
DEFORMATION & STIFFNESS
STRENGTH (Resistance to F
(Extension, Contraction, such as Yield,
Curvature, Deflection, Fracture, Fatigue,
Distortion, Twist) Rupture) 6
 As designers we
Load Carrying must first assess the loads that act on a machine or
System structure.

Internal
Forces These external loads create internal loads in the object.

The intensity of internal loads, called stresses, are used

Stresses
& Strains to calculate object deformation, and are compared to
the intended materials limiting stresses.

by choosing material,
STIFFNESS
STRENGTH and part dimensions
& DEFORMATION Ensure stresses are maintained below
limits for the chosen material.
Deformations are maintained below limits
for the product application.
Utilise material efficiently to perform the
required task ($$$$$$). 7
 2.1 2.1 DEFORMATION
Deformation
is the change in the bodys size and shape, whenever
a force is applied to a body.
Can be highly visible or practically unnoticeable.
can also occur when temperature of a body is
changed.
Is not uniform throughout a bodys volume, thus
change in geometry of any line segment within body
may vary along its length
To simplify the study of deformation
Assume lines to be very short and located in
neighborhood of a point, and
Take into account the orientation of the line segment at
the point
8
2.1 Deformation

When a force is applied,

a body deforms.
Displacement: u(A), u(B)
u(A) Distortion:
A
B
A B
Normal strain

Shear strain

Normal Strain 9
Shear Strain
 Normal strain
Defined as the elongation or contraction of
a line segment per unit of length
Consider line AB in figure below
After deformation, s changes to s

10
 Average Normal Strain
Normal strain
Defining average normal strain using avg (epsilon)

s s
avg =
s

As s 0, s 0

lim s s
=
BA along n s

11
 Normal strain- Signs
Normal strain
If normal strain is known, use the equation to
obtain approx. final length of a short line segment
in direction of n after deformation.

s (1 + ) s

Hence, when is positive, initial line will elongate,

if is negative, the line contracts

12
 Normal strain Units
Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, as
its a ratio of two lengths
But common practice to state it in terms of
meters/meter (m/m)
is small for most engineering applications, so
is normally expressed as micrometers per
meter (m/m) where 1 m = 106
Also expressed as a percentage,
e.g., 0.001 m/m = 0.1 %

13
2.2 STRAIN : Normal Strain
Applied normal stresses cause a body to deform. Normal strain, , is
a measure of the resulting change in length of the material.

Concept of normal strain

Fn Change in Length
Fn Original Length

Lo
L Lo
L
Lo

Tensile normal stresses Compressive normal stresses

result in Elongation. result in Contraction.
Fn Fn Fn Fn

is POSITIVE is NEGATIVE
14
In general, three components of normal stress can act on an element
of material. Therefore, three components of normal strain will result.
y
y

x
z x

z
To define these components of strain, we consider the change in
geometry of the small element of material.

z (Undeformed (Possible
z
geometry) deformed

geometry)
y y

x x
15
To summarise, in general we may have 3 components of normal
stress. These generate 3 related components of normal
strain.
y

x
z y

x y

z
x
Question: How are and related?
z
16
2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.1
Rod below is subjected to temperature increase along its
axis, creating a normal strain of
z = 40(103)z1/2, where z is given in meters.

Determine
(a) displacement of end B of rod
due to temperature increase,
(b) average normal strain in the
rod.

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.1 (SOLN)
(a) Since normal strain reported at each point along the
rod, a differential segment dz, located at position z
has a deformed length:
dz = [1 + 40(103)z1/2] dz

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.1 (SOLN)
(a) Sum total of these segments along axis yields
deformed length of the rod, i.e.,
0.2 m
z = 0 [1 + 40(103)z1/2] dz
0.2 m
= z + 40(10 )( z )|0 3 3/2

= 0.20239 m

Displacement of end of rod is

B = 0.20239 m 0.2 m = 2.39 mm

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.1 (SOLN)
(b) Assume rod or line segment has original
length of 200 mm and a change in length of
2.39 mm. Hence,
s s 2.39 mm
avg = = = 0.0119 mm/mm
s 200 mm

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.2
The rigid beam is supported by a pin at A and
wires BD and CE. If the load P on the beam
causes the end C to be displayed 10mm
downward, determine the normal strain
developed in wires CE and BD.

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.3
The two wires are connected together at A. If
the force P cause point A to be displaced
horizontally 2mm, determine the normal
strain developed in each wire.

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 Shear strain
Defined as the change in angle that occurs
between two line segments that were
originally perpendicular to one another
This angle is denoted by (gamma) and
measured in radians (rad).
Shear strain, xy, is essentially a measure of
change in shape. xy is the change in angle that
occurs between two line segments, which were
perpendicular on the undeformed body.

23
Shear Strain: (Hibbeler Section 2.2)
Applied shear stresses generate a different kind of deformation than
that produced by normal stresses. The shape of an element of
material is distorted as shown below.
y xy
A B
A B
x
xy
xy
C
D C D
xy
Pronounced
as gamma
Before After
Deformation Deformation

Shear strain, xy, is essentially a measure of change in shape. xy is

the change in angle that occurs between two line segments, which
were perpendicular on the undeformed body. 24
 2.2 Shear strain
Consider line segments AB and AC originating
from same point A in a body, and directed along
the perpendicular n and t axes
After deformation, lines become curves, such that
angle between them at A is

25
 Shear strain
Shear strain
Hence, shear strain at point A associated with n
and t axes is
lim
nt =
2 BA along n
C A along t

If is smaller than /2, shear strain is positive,

otherwise, shear strain is negative

26
 To define the components of shear strain, consider the possible
deformation of a small element of material. Recall, u and v are
components of displacement.
u
y
v
x
u u
tan1
x y
y
v
v
tan1
x

u 1 u
NOTE: For small angles, tan tan
y y

xy is therefore the sum of xy tan1 du dy tan1 dv dx

u/y and v/x. It is defined at
a point if we let the size our xy du dy dv dx
element approach zero. (if change in angle is small)
27
Three components of shear strain are possible, due to the three
possible shear stress components. yz yz xz xz
xy xy

y
x

y
Notation: Subscripts relate to plane that yz
shear stress/strain is applied.
z
Sign Convention:
B
A B A
Positive if A' DC' ADC
Negative if A' DC' ADC
D C
D C 28
 Cartesian strain components
Since element is very small, deformed shape
of element is a parallelepiped

Approx. lengths of sides of parallelepiped are

(1 + x) x (1 + y)y (1 + z)z
29
 Cartesian strain
2.2 components
STRAIN
Approx. angles between the sides are

xy yz xz
2 2 2

Normal strains cause a change in its volume

Shear strains cause a change in its shape
To summarize, state of strain at a point requires
specifying 3 normal strains; x, y, z and 3 shear
strains of xy, yz, xz

30
 Small strain analysis
Most engineering design involves applications
for which only small deformations are allowed
Well assume that deformations that take place
within a body are almost infinitesimal, so normal
strains occurring within material are very small
compared to 1, i.e., << 1.

31
 Small strain analysis
Small strain analysis
This assumption is widely applied in practical
engineering problems, and is referred to as
small strain analysis
E.g., it can be used to approximate sin = ,
cos = and tan = , provided is small

32
2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.4
Plate is deformed as shown in figure. In this
deformed shape, horizontal lines on the on plate
remain horizontal and do not change their length.
Determine
(a) average normal strain
along side AB,
(b) average shear strain
in the plate relative to
x and y axes

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.4 (SOLN)

(a) Line AB, coincident with y axis, becomes line

AB after deformation. Length of line AB is
AB = (250 2)2 + (3)2 = 248.018 mm

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.4 (SOLN)
(a) Therefore, average normal strain for AB is,
AB AB 248.018 mm 250 mm
(AB)avg = =
AB 250 mm

= 7.93(103) mm/mm

Negative sign means

strain causes a
contraction of AB.

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.4 (SOLN)
(b) Due to displacement of B to B, angle BAC
referenced from x, y axes changes to .
ds
Since xy = L, thus
tan

xy = tan 1
( 3 mm
250 mm 2 mm)= 0.0121 rad

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.5

The piece of plastic is originally rectangular.

Determine the average normal strain that
occurs along the diagonals AC and DB

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2. Strain
EXAMPLE 2.6

The square deforms into the position shown by

the dashed lines. Determine the shear strain at
each of its corners A, B, C, D. Side D B
remains horizontal.

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2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
Loads cause bodies to deform, thus points in
the body will undergo displacements or
changes in position
Normal strain is a measure of elongation or
contraction of small line segment in the body
Shear strain is a measure of the change in
angle that occurs between two small line
segments that are originally perpendicular to
each other

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2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
State of strain at a point is described by six
strain components:
a) Three normal strains: x, y, z
b) Three shear strains: xy, xz, yz
c) These components depend upon the orientation of
the line segments and their location in the body
Strain is a geometrical quantity measured
by experimental techniques. Stress in body
is then determined from material property
relations

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2. Strain
CHAPTER REVIEW
Most engineering materials undergo small
deformations, so normal strain << 1.
This assumption of small strain analysis
allows us to simplify calculations for
normal strain, since first-order
approximations can be made about their
size

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