Emotion

and
Motivatio
n
Will you do it For
Science?
 A Sexual Motivation
William Masters and Virginia
Johnson
Human Sexual activity is
psychological as it is
physiological/biological
Masters set out to do a study
in order to provide a clear
and thorough understanding
of sexual functioning to
successfully treat sexual
problems.
Sexual Revolution
Until 1960s, The
Victorian era
perception toward
sex as something
hidden and
secretive prevented
social and financial
support for the
study
 1960s Sparked the sexual revolution
where
Men and women began to
acknowledge their own
sexuality more openly,
sexual feelings, desires.

The social climate did not

just accept sexuality but
demanded to learn about
the different responses to
sexual stimulation
What did Masters and
Johnson want?
To Understand human sexuality through the study of
actual sexual behavior as it occurs in response to sexual
stimulation

What physical reactions develop as human male and female

respond to effective sexual stimulation?

Why do men and women behave as they do when responding to

effective sexual stimulation?

If ever human sexual inadequacy was to be treated successfully,

the medical and behavioral professions must provide answers to
these basic questions.
How did they do it?
Participants: Willing to engage in sexual acts in a
laboratory setting while being closely observed
and monitored.

Employed Prostitutes first

So they sought for a more representative sample

of participants and did not find it as difficult.
 Procedures

Blood
Pulse Respiration
Pressure

Involved manual and mechanical

manipulation (Devices, Sexual activity
without a partner)

Natural intercourse in supine, superior,

knee-chest position (Diff. positions)
 Sexual Response Cycles
Male Sexual Female Sexual
2500 Response Response
7500 Cycles Cycles
Results
Also studies were able to dispel sexual myths

Larger penises are more effective in

providing sexual stimulation for the
woman

After orgasm
Men Women
Men are incapable of Women are capable of
experiencing another experiencing multiple
orgasm regardless of the orgasms. They do not
type or amount of have a refractory period.
stimulation he receives.
(Refractory Period)

It can last from several Not all women desire

minutes, hours or even multiple orgasms, many
a day. are satisfied with just
one.
 Criticisms
Focused more on the stages of sexual
response rather than cognitive and
emotional aspects of sexuality.

More Physiological than Psychological

They mentioned that understanding of the
physiological side of sexual behavior
allowed them to peer into what constitutes
a satisfying and fulfilling sex life.

Subsequent research also questioned

whether their findings apply to all
humans
 Recent studies
Recent studies delve into more
cognitive aspects that better explain
and treat sexual problems. They Presently,
take most sex therapy may it be
into account the for erectile problems, orgasm
womans fear of abuse, difficulties, rapid ejaculation, inhibited
arousal issues rests on the basic
imbalance of power,
foundations of Masters and Johnsons
past sexual trauma, research. So in essence, the main
Depression and Anxiety goal of this study was met. To help
people solve their sexual problems.
as well as medical factors like hormonal
imbalances, sexually transmitted
infections and medication side-effects.
ACTIVITY

TRY TO CHOOSE THE

CORRECT EMOTION
EXHIBITED BY THE PEOPLE
IN THIS PHOTO
ACTIVITY

TRY TO GUESS THE

EMOTION THAT IS
PORTRAYED BY THE FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS IN THE
FOLLOWING PICTURES
NOW TRY TO MATCH
THE FACIAL
EXPRESSIONS WITH
THE EMOTIONS LISTED
Surprise
Dumbfounded Surprise
Dazed Surprise
Questioning Surprise
ANSWERS
Fear
Anger
Sadness
Surprise
Disgust
Happiness
Questioning Dumbfounded
Surprise Surprise

Dazed
Surprise
Surprise
I CAN SEE IT ALL OVER
YOUR FACE

We are aware that facial expressions coincide

with specific emotions

We can tell how people are feeling emotionally

from the expressions on their face.

But can we tell their emotional state if lets say

that person is from a different culture? How sure
are you that facial expressions UNIVERSAL?
 Constants Across Cultures in
the Face and Emotion
Several years ago Ekman and Friesen
demonstrated from a study that participants
from Brazil, Chile, Japan and the U.S. correctly
identified facial expressions corresponding to
the same emotions regardless of the
nationality of the person in the photo.

However, members of the cultures have also

been exposed to international mass media
(movies, magazines, television) which are full
of facial expressions that have transmitted to
all these countries.

Ekman and Friesen proposed that in order to

prove universality, they needed to study a
culture that had not been exposed to any of
these influences.
Ekman & Friesen traveled to the
southeast highlands of New Guinea

The participants were among the Fore

people who existed as an isolated
Stone Age society.

Those selected had never seen

movies, did not speak English, never
worked for a westerner, or lived in any
of the western settlements in the area.
Therefore had not been exposed to
emotional facial expressions other
than those of their own people.

(189 adults, 130 children)

Method
3 photographs of diff facial
expressions.

Read a brief description of an

emotion-producing scene. A
story that corresponded to
one photograph.

Told to point the picture in

which the persons face
showed the emotion
described in the story.
Stories
Happiness: His Sadness: His (her) Anger: He (she) is
(her) friends have child has died, and angry; or he (she)
come, and he (she) he (she) feels very is angry, about to
is happy. sad. fight.

Disgust: He (she) Surprise: He (she)

is looking at is just now looking
something he (she) at something new
dislikes; or He and unexpected
(she) is looking at
something which
smells bad.

Fear: He (she) is sitting in his (her) house all alone, and there is no one
else in the village. There is no knife, axe, or bow and arrow in the house.
A wild pig is standing in the door of the house, and the man (woman) is
looking at the pig and is very afraid of it. The pig has been standing in
the doorway for a few minutes, and the person is looking at it very
afraid, and the pig won't move away from the door, and he (she) is
Results

Significant findings (In choosing photographs)

No sig. differences between males and females or adults and
children
No sig. differences between Westernized and non-Westernized
(Fore people) group (both chose correct photographs)
Discussion
Since the South Fore group had no opportunity
to learn anything about Western expressions,
they had no way of identifying them unless
expressions are Universal

Results for both adults and children clearly

support our hypothesis that particular facial
behaviors are universally associated with
particular emotions

Had a hard time distinguishing between fear

and surprise. Maybe because in this culture,
fearful events are almost always also surprising.
Results contradict the
view that:

1. All facial behavior

associated with emotion
is culture specific

2. Facial behavior is a
unique set of culture-
bound conventions that
are not understood by
members of another
culture
Implications of the
research
It may prove that these facial expressions
for emotions are influenced very little by
cultural differences, there may be a
possibility that these are innate, or
biologically hardwired in the brain at birth.

(Darwin, 1872) Furthers research by Darwin

showing that facial expressions were
adaptive mechanisms that assisted animals
in adapting to their environment.

(Expression of Fear = imminent danger from

predators

Expression of Disgust = dont eat that, its

poison)
Implications of the
research
(Hansen and Hansen 1988) This may have
Time it takes to find a single happy implications that
face in pictures of angry faces, is humans may be
significantly longer than looking for biologically
an angry face in a crowd of happy programmed to
faces. respond to the
information provided
Increasing the size of the crowd of
by certain expressions
angry faces made them take longer to better than others
find a happy face but when the crowd because those
of happy faces increased, the time it expressions offered
took for them to find an angry face more survival
was still the same. information.
ACTIVITY
2 Will Tell a Lie

2 Will Tell the Truth

You can only say

1) Its with me

2) Its not with me

)If they succeed in tricking the volunteer, then they

each have a prize.

)If the volunteer successfully guesses correctly,

then the volunteer gets all their prizes.
Watching Your Emotions
Philip Ross (2003)

Polygraphs are often used to

instill fear as much as to detect it

It measures not thoughts but only

the indirect physiological
consequences of thoughts--blood
pressure and respiration, among
others--that hint that a subject
may be lying.

Sometimes the results are false positives--an honest

answer misjudged as a lie--and false negatives--a lie
misjudged as the truth.
The courts have long ruled polygraph findings
inadmissible as evidence.
 Not Mind
Reading like
in the
movies.
Mind
Reading
 Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI)
Greater than X-Ray or CT
It does not emit radiation
Can show soft tissue abnormalities clearer (3-dimensional)

Used beyond medicine to detect brain structures

involved in:
Human thinking
Emotions
Motivations
Behaviors

May be Potentially used as a high-tech lie detector

Examining which parts of the brain are functioning during
a certain activity
 Functional MRI (fMRI)

May be Potentially used as a

high-tech lie detector
Examining which parts of the brain
are functioning during different
activities

MRI can tell by detecting the

changes in the amount of oxygen
in the blood flow around the
active areas.

This allows us to see which parts

of the brain are activated
because they light up.
Method
1. Participants were asked to select one of three
envelopes, all of which contained the 5 of clubs
and $20 bill (participants did not know all were the
same)

2. Asked to memorize the cards and return it with the

money to the envelope and put it in their pocket.

3. If they were able to keep their card a secret from

the computer, then they could keep the $20.

4. Other participants received the 2 of hearts about

which they were instructed to tell the truth and
not conceal what card they had.
Method
4. A participant was placed in the fMRI, and
responded with a yes or no button.

5. The participants were then asked Do you

have this card

Do you have this card?

Results
Participants who told
the truth about their 2
of hearts utilized only
one brain region.
(Anterior cingulate
cortex)

Participants who lied

utilized two regions.
(Anterior Cingulate
Cortex and Dorsolateral
Prefontal Cortex)
 Several areas activated more during lying-
including the anterior cingulate cortex and part
of the left prefrontal cortex-are associated with
suppression of response.

This suggests that the default position is

truth, and deception is some sort of
process you perform on truth
Significance
Allows us to see how the brain is specialized,
reserving specific regions for specific tasks.
There are regions with assigned jobs for
planning, problems solving and reasoning.

This demonstrates that MRI scanning has

important uses beyond medical diagnosis.
Can be used as a foolproof lie detector
 Why is it still not used in
Court?
Individuals may trick an fMRI machine by
thinking of non-relevant stimuli during or by
refusing to comply with researcher instructions

One study examined countermeasures as

simple as moving a finger or toe. These simple
movements, imperceptible to those conducting
the experiment, were sufficient to trigger brain
activation patterns that substantially reduced
the accuracy of the fMRI deception test.

It is unknown whether individuals could

prime themselves in advance of taking fMRI
lie detector tests by, for instance, repeating a
lie so many times that the brain begins to show
activation patterns associated with repetitive
conduct, rather than deception
 Future research
opportunities
We may want to find out of how useful an
fMRI lie detector would be in individuals
who have mental illnesses, or who display
sociopathic tendencies, especially with
regard to truth-telling behavior

There may be differences in the lying

brain that can result from unique
pathologies, cultural backgrounds, or
other factors that could prevent these
studies from being able to maintain high
levels of accuracy across different test
subjects.
Recent Applications
A better understanding of Autism spectrum
disorder (Philipa et al, 2012)
fMRI study revealed that it may not be an inability
to socialize that affects those with autism
disorders, but rather a preference to avoid
socialization.

Identifies regions in the brains of

schizophrenics that appear to be responsible
for the characteristic loss of clear and rational
thinking (Libby & Ragland, 2011)
In order for researchers to develop new treatment
targeting these specific areas.
The possibilities are
endless!
In the past, the only method for
researching the brain directly
was through surgery or autopsy.

The applications and utility of

the fMRI lends it use to medicine
in the treatment of psychological
disorders, to legal concerns in
being a lie detector as well as
to different researchers in the
exploration of how the brains of
the opposite genders differ.
Thoughts Out of Tune

Why do some students who view

cheating as wrong, still participate in
cheating practices? This inconsistent
behavior may lead them to feel a
certain kind of tension. This
inconsistency is a phenomenon
called Cognitive Dissonance
Thoughts Out of Tune

Cognitive Dissonance is induced

when a person holds two
contradictory beliefs, or when a belief
is incongruent with an action that the
person had chosen freely to perform.

Because this situation produces

feelings of discomfort, the individual
strives to change one of the beliefs or
behaviors in order to avoid being
inconsistent.
Thoughts Out of Tune

VIDEO TIME
 Cognitive Consequences of
Forced Compliance
In the mid-50s Leon Festinger and James
Carlsmith conducted a classic experiment
where students were engaged in very
boring, dull and repetitive tasks.

Students were then given asked to take

the place of the person who regularly
gives the spiel before the experiment and
tell the next subject waiting outside that
the activity was fun. Half of the
participants were given a $20 incentive
while the other half a $1 incentive
 Larger rewards produced less attitude change
than smaller rewards.
Common sense may be a poor predictor of human
behavior.
Based on behavioral theories of psychology that
were popular at the time, (operant conditioning,
reinforcement theory) this was an exception

It was rather
boring
Cognitive Dissonance
The cognitive dissonance came from the fact
that the experiment was boring and $1 was
not enough for lying.

Many of the $1 subjects actually convinced

themselves that the experiment was fun
after they made the decision. This change of
view was probably done to reduce the
dissonance between their prior beliefs and
their behavior, since a small incentive could
not suffice. YES, I think I would
Like to
The $20 subjects on the other hand felt no
dissonance because they felt comfortable in
lying just for the money.
In Festingers words
If a person is induced to do or say
something that is contrary to his private
opinion, there will be a tendency for him to
change his actual opinion to bring it into
correspondence with what he has said or
done.
The larger the pressure used to elicit the
behavior, the weaker will be the tendency to
change ones opinion.
Attitude- Sufficient No/Small
Small
discrepant Justification Attitude
Dissonance
behavior for Behavior Change
(Lie)
Attitude- Insufficient Large
discrepant Large Attitude
Justification
behavior Dissonance Change
for Behavior
Criticisms
To better prove his theory to those that may
oppose it, the sessions in which the participant
lied to the incoming participant were recorded.

These were rated by two independent judges who

had no knowledge of who the $1 or $20
participants was.

Statistical analyses of these ratings showed no

differences in the content or persuasiveness of the
speech between the two groups.

Therefore the only explanation that can be drawn

from this would be Cognitive Dissonance.
 Recent Applications
A study by Peretti-Watel et al
explained why some cigarette
smokers refuse to quit even though
they know the negative health
effects of smoking.

Due to the discrepancy between

what they know and what they do,
many develop strategies to reduce
the dissonance.

The researchers in this study found

that the smokers engaged in self-
exempting beliefs such as
Smoking is dangerous to peoples
health but not to me because I
dont smoke very much.
The way I smoke cigarettes will
RECAP
 Study #1
A Sexual
Motivation
The It paved the way Their direct systematic
controversial for the treatment of observations and
but scientific sexual problems physiological
research of and understanding measurements of men
Masters and of the individual and women allowed them
Johnson shocked variations of male to divide the human
the world. and female sexual sexual response into 4
responses. stages
(Excitement, Plateau,
Orgasm, Resolution)
which they called the
Sexual Response Cycle.
Study #2
I Can See It All
Over Your Face UNIVERSALIT
Y
Demonstrates that
our facial
Examines facial expressions for basic
expressions and emotions may be the
emotions same for everyone in
all cultures
throughout the
world.
 Study #3
Watching Your Emotions?
Shows the various functions and advances of
the fMRI

The Functional MRI proves to be an effective

detector of lies.

Allows us to see how the brain is specialized,

reserving specific regions for specific tasks.
There are regions that are more in use when
planning, problems solving and reasoning.
 Study # 4
Thoughts out of Tune

When there are It forces us to Most of us engage

inconsistencies either change our in hypocritical
between our behavior or our behavior all the time
beliefs in order to because we can blind
beliefs and our
bring them more ourselves to it. But if
behaviors, we in tune with each someone comes
usually experience other and reduce along and forces you
Cognitive the discomfort to look at it, you can
Dissonance no longer shrug it
off. (Shea, 1997)